Phonological processing skills and their longitudinal relation to first and additional language literacy in isiXhosa and isiZulu speaking children

Abstract

Phonological awareness (PA), rapid automatised naming (RAN), and phonological working memory (PWM) are phonological processing skills which support literacy development concurrently and longitudinally. For bilinguals, skills developed in the first language (L1) can support literacy development in the additional language in a process called transfer. Phonological processing skills and their role in the literacy development of emergent bilinguals in the South African context has been under-explored. This study aimed to determine the within-language and across-language longitudinal development of, and association between, phonological processing skills and literacy skills of children who use two closely related African languages and English from Grades 1 to 3. A group of isiXhosa-English (n = 69) and isiZulu-English (n = 70) emergent bilingual children completed L1 and English phonological processing and literacy (letter recognition fluency, word and text reading fluency, spelling) measures at three points in time: the end of Grade 1 (t1), start of Grade 3 (t2), and end of Grade 3 (t3). Reading comprehension was assessed at t3 only. Confirmatory factor analysis models revealed that PA was best conceptualised as two language specific latent factors at t1, but as a language general factor at t2. PWM and RAN were best conceptualised as language general factors at t1 and t2. Path models on the cross-sectional data revealed that letter recognition fluency and PA were predictors of literacy, but the effect of RAN on literacy was mediated via letter recognition fluency, suggesting that RAN reflects the ability to make orthography-phonology correspondences. At early stages of reading development (t1), when PA and letter knowledge were not well-established, PWM (digit span) was a more stable predictor of later literacy attainment. Once letter knowledge was developed and PA skills were stronger (t2), the data replicated what has been found for other contexts: PA is a stable predictor of later L1 and English literacy, and alphanumeric RAN contributed to reading fluency (in L1). This study confirms the importance of teaching letter-sound correspondence rules to high levels of accuracy in the first grade in the South African context. Furthermore, automaticity in decoding needs to be prioritised in young readers to support reading fluency and comprehension.

Fonologiese bewussyn, snelle geoutomatiseerde benoeming en fonologiese werkgeheue is fonologiese verwerkingsvaardighede wat die ontwikkeling van geletterdheid gelyktydig, sowel as longitudinaal, ondersteun. In tweetalige leerders kan vaardighede wat in die eerste taal ontwikkel geletterdheidsontwikkeling in ‘n addisionele taal ondersteun, deur 'n proses bekend as ‘kruislinguistiese oordrag’. Die relatiewe rol wat verskillende fonologiese verwerkingsvaardighede in die ontwikkeling van geletterdheid in ontluikende tweetalige kinders speel is egter nie duidelik in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks nie. Hierdie studie het ten doel om die longitudinale ontwikkeling van, en korrelasie tussen, fonologiese verwerkingsvaardighede en geletterdheidsvaardighede te ondersoek in kinders wat in ‘n Afrika taal en Engels leer lees van graad 1 tot graad 3. 'n Groep isiXhosa-Engels (aantal = 69) en isiZulu-Engels (aantal = 70) ontluikende tweetalige kinders het fonologiese verwerkingsvaardighede toetse en geletterdheidsvaardighede (letterherkenningvlotheid, woord- en teksleesvlotheid, spelling) toetse in sowel die eerste taal as in Engels voltooi. Alle leerders is op drie tydstippe geassesseer: einde van graad 1 (t1), begin van graad 3 (t2), en einde van graad 3 (t3). Leesbegrip is slegs tydens t3 getoets. Bevestigende faktor ontledingsmodelle het aangedui dat fonologiese bewussyn as twee taalspesifieke latente faktore by t1, maar as 'n taal-algemene faktor by t2 gekonseptualiseer moet word. Daarteenoor kon fonologiese werkgeheue en snelle geoutomatiseerde benoeming as taal-algemene faktore by sowel t1 as t2 gekonseptualiseer word. Statistiese modelle van die deursnit-data het aangetoon dat die vlotheid waarmee leerders letters herken, sowel as die vlak van fonologiese bewussyn, geletterdheid direk voorspel, maar dat die effek van snelle geoutomatiseerde benoeming op geletterdheid deur die vlotheid van letterherkenning bemiddel word. Dit suggereer dat snelle geoutomatiseerde benoeming die vermoë weerspieël om verbintenisse tussen die ortografie en fonologie van ‘n taal te maak. Tydens t1, waar fonologiese bewussyn en letterkennis nog nie na behore ontwikkel was nie, het fonologiese werkgeheue (syferspan) latere geletterdheidsvlakke beter voorspel. Tydens t2, waar letterkennis en fonologiese bewussyn meer gevestig was, het die data vroeëre bevindings uit ander kontekste (naamlik dat fonologiese bewussyn 'n stabiele voorspeller is van latere eerstetaal en addisionele taal geletterdheid) ondersteun. Snelle geoutomatiseerde benoeming het met name bygedra tot leesvlotheid (in die eerste taal). Hierdie studie bevestig die noodsaak om letter-klank korrespondensiereëls in die eerste graad in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks deeglik te onderrig, sodat hoë vlakke van akkuraatheid vroeg bereik word. Verder moet outomatisiteit in dekodering by jong lesers geprioritiseer word om leesvlotheid en -begrip te ondersteun.

Ulwazi lwefonoloji (PA), ukubiza/ukufunda izinto ezisondeleneyo ngokukhawuleza nangokuzenzekela okwaziwa ngokuba yi-rapid automatised naming (RAN), kunye nenkqubo yokukhumbula ngokukhawuleza ukusebenza kwefonoloji eyaziwa ngokuba yi-phonological working memory (PWM) zizakhono zocwangciso lwefonoloji ezixhasa uphuhliso lokufunda nokubhala ngokunqamlezileyo nangokobude ukusuka entla ukuya ezantsi. Kwabo abathetha iilwimi ezimbini, izakhono eziphuhliswe ngolwimi lokuqala (L1) zinako ukuxhasa uphuhliso lwesakhono sokufunda nokubhala ngolwimi lwesibini kwinkqubo ebizwa ngokuba kukufunda ulwimi ngokolwazi lolunye ulwimi. Lunqongophele uphando lwezakhono zocwangciso lwefonoloji kunye nendima yazo ekuphuhliseni isakhono sokufunda nokubhala kwabo abaqhuba bephuhlisa ulwimi lwabo lwasekhaya ngelixa befunda ulwimi lwesibini kwimeko yoMzantsi Afrika. Olu phando belujolise ekufumaneni uphuhliso kulwimi ngalunye kunye nokunxulumana kubudlelwane phakathi kwizakhono zokwaziswa kwefonoloji kunye nezakhono zokufunda nokubhala kubantwana abasebenzisa iilwimi ezimbini ezisondeleleneyo zesiNtu kunye nesiNgesi ukususela kumaBanga 1 ukuya kwele3. Iqela lesiXhosa nesiNgesi (n = 69) kunye nesiZulu nesiNgesi (n = 70) labantwana abaqhuba bephuhlisa ulwimi lwabo lwasekhaya ngelixa befunda ulwimi lwesibini ligqibe i-L1 kunye nemilinganiselo yocwangciso nokubhalwa kwefonoloji yesiNgesi (ukuqaphela oonobumba kakuhle, ukuqaphela amagama kunye nokufunda umbhalo kakuhle, upelo) ngamanqaku amathathu ngexesha: ekupheleni kweBanga 1 (t1), ekuqaleni kweBanga 3 (t2), kunye nasekupheleni kweBanga 3 (t3). Kuvavanywe i-t3 kuphela ukuze kujongwe ukuqonda kwabo oko kubhaliweyo. Iimodeli zohlalutyo lomsantsa okhoyo (confirmatory factor analysis models) phakathi komba ophandwayo nethiyori zibonise ukuba i-PA iye yaqingqwa kakuhle kakhulu njengemiba emibini ethile yolwimi engekaphuhliswa kwi-t1, kodwa ibe ngumba wolwimi oqhelekileyo kwi-t2. I-PWM ne-RAN zezona ezithe zaqingqwa kakuhle kakhulu njengemiba eqhelekileyo yolwimi kwi-t1 nakwi-t2. Iimodeli zobudlelwane obunxulumeneyo phakathi kwezinto eziguqaguqukayo nezo ezingaguquguqukiyo kwidatha evela kuluntu ngexesha elinye zivelise ukuba ukuqatshelwa kakuhle koonobumba kunye ne-PA zezona zinto eziqikelela izakhono zokufunda nokubhala kodwa ifuthe le-RAN kwizakhono zokufunda nokubhala zingenelelwe ngokuqatshelwa kakuhle koonobumba, nto leyo echaza ukuba i-RAN ibonisa ukubanako kwabafundi ukwenza ungqinelwano kwimigaqo yokubhala nefonoloji. I-PWM (ukugcinwa kolwazi okwethutyana) ibingumqikeleli ozinzileyo wokufikelela kwisakhono sokufunda nokubhala samva kwizigaba zokuqala zophuhliso lokufunda (t1), ngelixa i-PA kunye nolwazi loonobumba zingakhange zimiselwe kakuhle. Lwakuba ulwazi loonobumba luphuhlisiwe nezakhono ze-PA zomelele (t2), idatha iphinde yaphindaphinda oko kuye kwafunyanwa kwezinye iimeko: I-PA ngumqikeleli ozinzileyo we-L1 yamva kunye nesakhono sokufunda nokubhala isiNgesi, kwaye i- RAN equlethe oonobumba namanani ibe negalelo ekufundeni kakuhle (kwi-L1). Olu phando luqinisekisa ukubaluleka kokufundisa imithetho yongqinelwano lwezandi zoonobumba kumanqanaba okuchaneka aphezulu kwibanga lokuqala kwimeko yoMzantsi Afrika. Ngaphezu koko, ukuzenzekela kokukhupha izandi zoonobumba nokuqonda amagama abawakhayo kufuneka kubekwe phambili kubafundi abatsha ukuxhasa ukufunda kakuhle kunye nokuqonda oko kufundwayo.