Examining a political ecology of illegal sand mining and the socio-environmental conflicts in Harare Metropolitan Province, Zimbabwe

Abstract

Globally, sand accounts for approximately 30 percent of global annual solid material consumption, mainly for construction purposes. Sadly, about 50 billion tons of sand is mined illegally especially in developing regions such as Africa where there are high levels of unemployment, poverty and low standards of living. This has resulting in a myriad of socioenvironmental problems such as environmental degradation, poor stakeholder relations and social malpractices. In Zimbabwe, most open spaces in urban and peri-urban areas are exploited for sand or gravel mining. In Harare Province, in which the capital city lies, areas such as Hopley farm, Retreat Farm, Waterfalls, Epworth and Chitungwiza have become havens of illegal sand mining. Unfortunately, the illicit and indiscriminate nature of sand mining activities have created conflict between the various stakeholders including central and local government, civil society, local community members, industry and the illegal sand miners. The few available studies on illegal sand mining, in Zimbabwe have narrowly focused on either causes or impacts of illegal sand mining without exploring the broader and intertwined issues such as governance and the political ecology, and the socio-environmental conflicts associated with illegal sand mining. Having recognised this gap in the literature, this study examines the various interconnected social, economic, political and environmental issues that underpin illegal sand mining in Zimbabwe by conducting a qualitative study in the three areas of Epworth, Retreat Farm and Zengeza east. The study is premised on the political ecology framework, reflexive governance framework, land resource theory and stakeholder theory. The political ecology framework informs the study in establishing the interconnected social, political and economic issues on illegal sand mining and conflicts. Similarly, the study utilises the land resource conflict theory to explain conflict that emerge over land use, in this case for the purpose of sand mining. The stakeholder theory explains the utility of stakeholder collaboration in achieving socio-environmental sustainability in the sand mining sector while reflexive governance guides the study in analysing how existing sand governance actions are relevant in addressing illegal sand mining and conflicts in Zimbabwe at large. By way of empirical investigation, study participants were purposively selected from various sectors including the local government, non-governmental organisations, industry, illegal sand miners and local communities. Qualitative data were collected using semi-structured interviews including face-to-face and telephone interviews, observation and document analysis. Results of the study indicate that illegal sand mining is driven by a set of economic, social and political factors such as poor government policies (land reform policy and indigenisation policy), unemployment, urbanisation, poor national economic performance and declining standards of living of local communities. Emerging impacts include environmental degradation, land use alterations, social malpractices and safety and health problems. The combination of these issues acts as a catalyst in generating social and environmental conflict in Zimbabwe. The study noted limited stakeholder engagement in addressing illegal sand mining and conflicts. However, poor enforcement, corruption, limited stakeholder engagement in design, implementation and evaluation processes hinder reflexive governance of illegal sand mining in Zimbabwe. A study conclusion emphasises the need for efficient and effective reflexive governance and stakeholder engagement for social, environmental and economic sustainability in the sector. In practice, the study recommends the adoption of a systematic approach to achieving sustainable sand mining by engaging various stakeholders such as the local community, civil society, government and non-governmental organisations (NGOs). As supported by the stakeholder theory, such stakeholders are key to the planning, implementation and review of programs and actions that address the illegal sand mining problems in Zimbabwe. The study also proposes that the government regulate this informal activity, designate more land for sand mining and incentivise sustainable sand mining by local community members. Furthermore, the study recommends the introduction of an extractive sector fund to support programs for sustainable sand mining.