Feminisation of poverty among female-headed households in post-genocide Odi community in Niger-Delta region of Nigeria

Abstract

Poverty as it concerns women is often approached in terms of the three contributing factors that have been underscored in the women-in-development and gender-and development (WID/GAD) literature: (1) the growth of female-headed households (FHHs), (2) intra-household inequalities and bias against women and girls, and (3) neoliberal economic policies, including structural adjustments and post-socialist market transitions. This study focused on female-headed households (FHHs). The aim of the study was to analyse the feminisation of poverty and the empowerment of female-heads of households and the approaches that underpin them in Odi, a post genocide community. Located within an interpretivist paradigm, this study used a qualitative research approach alongside a case study research design. The target population was FHHs in Odi community. Semi-structured interviews (face-to-face) and a focus group discussion (FGD) was used to generate data. A total of 17 participants was purposively selected to participate in the study. Unique to this study are the poverty policy guidelines that are proposed based on the findings that emanated from the study. Amongst its findings, the study established that the experiences of female heads of households who were participants in this study did not cloud their sense of who they are and the impact that the environment has on their welfare and well-being. To this end, they needed no one to tell them that they are poor and in light of that, showed no anger when they stated that poverty has been “created” – mainly influenced by the environment/government activities – and/or “inherited” – they believe it is a continuation of their parents’ status. Through the power of self-perception, narrative and reflection, as standpoint theory promotes, most participants indicated that they were deprived of time to spend on their families and social events. Accordingly, this deprivation fosters ageing and unhappiness – conditions that result in people looking older than their age. In short, many of the participants stated that the life they live is not the one they would choose but is the life chosen one for them, given the fact that the situation in Odi community is detrimental to their well-being. Nonetheless, they are hopeful that if they are empowered, they will be able to live a good life, as Sen’s capability approach holds that capabilities can be enhanced.

Armoede onder vroue word dikwels bekyk op grond van die drie faktore wat in die literatuur oor vroue in ontwikkeling (VIO) en gender en ontwikkeling (GEO) genoem word: (1) ’n toename in die getal huishoudings met ’n vrou as gesinshoof (HVG’s); (2) die ongelykheid van en vooroordeel jeens vroue in huishoudings; en (3) neoliberale ekonomiese beleide, waaronder strukturele aanpassings en die oorgang na ’n post sosialistiese mark. Hierdie studie was gerig op huishoudings met ‘n vrou as gesinshoof (HVG’s). Die feminisering van armoede en die bemagtiging van vroulike gesinshoofde in Odi, ‘n gemeenskap wat die rassemoord oorleef het, sowel as die benaderings wat hierin gevolg word, was die studieonderwerp. In hierdie studie word ‘n kwalitatiewe benadering en ‘n gevallestudienavorsingsontwerp gevolg vanuit ’n interpretatiewe paradigma. HVG’s in die Odi-gemeenskap was die teikenbevolking. Data is met behulp van half gestruktureerde onderhoude (onder vier oë) en ‘n fokusgroepbespreking (FGB) ingesamel. Die sewentien deelnemers aan hierdie studie is doelbewus gekies. Riglyne vir ‘n armoedebeleid is op grond van die bevindings van hierdie studie voorgestel. Daar is bevind dat die vroulike gesinshoofde wat aan hierdie studie deelgeneem het, geen illusies gehad het oor wie hulle is en watter uitwerking die omgewing op hulle welsyn en welstand het nie. Hulle was bewus dat hulle behoeftig is. Die vroue was geensins wrokking toe hulle vertel het dat hulle armoede “geskep” en/of “oorgeërf” is nie. Na hulle mening is hulle armoede deur die omgewing en regeringsbeleid “geskep”, en het hulle hul armoede van hulle ouers “oorgeërf”. Uit die krag van hulle selfbeskouing, selfbesinning en vertellings, soos die standpuntteorie aanvoer, het die meeste deelnemers te kenne gegee dat hulle min tyd het om by hulle gesinne te wees en sosiale gesellighede by te woon. Hulle ontberings gee aanleiding tot verdriet en voortydige veroudering – die deelnemers lyk veel ouer as wat hulle in werklikheid is. Lewensomstandighede in die Odi-gemeenskap benadeel hulle welstand en baie deelnemers het laat blyk dat hulle hul lewens nie self gekies het nie, maar dat dit vir hulle gekies is . Nogtans is hulle hoopvol. Hulle glo dat as hulle net bemagtig kan word, sal hulle lewens verbeter. Dit strook met Sen se vermoëbenadering en siening dat vermoëns verbeter kan word.

Ubumpofu maqondana nabesifazane kuvame ukusondelwa kubo ngokwezici ezintathu ezinomthelela eziye zagcizelelwa emibhalweni yokuthuthukiswa kwabesifazane nobulili nokuthuthukiswa (WID/GAD): (1) ukukhula kwemindeni ephethwe abesifazane (FHHs); (2) ukungalingani kwangaphakathi kwekhaya kanye nokuchema kwabesifazane namantombazane; kanye (3) nezinqubomgomo zezomnotho nezokuncishiswa kwezindleko zikahulumeni, okuhlanganisa ukulungiswa kwesakhiwo kanye noguquko lwemakethe yangemva yezindlela zokukhiqiza nokusabalalisa ezilawulwa umphakathi. Lolu cwaningo lugxile kwabesifazane abayizinhloko zemindeni (FHHs). Inhloso yalolu cwaningo wukuhlaziya ukucindezelwa kobumpofu kwabesifazane kanye nokufukula abesifazane abayizinhloko zemindeni kanye nezindlela ezibasekela e-Odi, umphakathi wangemva kokubulawa ngokobuzwe. Njengoba kufakwe ngaphakathi indlela yemvelo yokuqoqwa kwemininingwane njengezingxoxo nokubhekwa, lolu cwaningo lusebenzise indlela yocwaningo yokuqoqa nokuhlaziya imininingwane engezona izinombolo ehambisana nendlela yocwaningo esetshenziselwa ukukhiqiza ukuqonda okujulile, okunezici eziningi zendaba eyinkimbinkimbi empilweni yayo yangempela. Inani labantu okuhloswe ngalo kwakungama-FHH emphakathini wama-Odi. Izingxoxo ezihlelwe kancane (ubuso nobuso) kanye nengxoxo yeqembu okugxilwe kuyo (FGD) zisetshenziswe ukwenza imininingwane. Isamba sabahlanganyeli abangu-17 bakhethwa ngenhloso ukuthi babambe iqhaza ocwaningweni. Okuhlukile kulolu cwaningo imihlahlandlela yenqubomgomo yobumpofu ehlongozwayo ngokusekelwe kulokho okutholwe okuphuma ocwaningweni. Phakathi kokutholakele, ucwaningo lwathola ukuthi okuhlangenwe nakho kwabesifazane abayizinhloko zemindeni ababebambe iqhaza kulolu cwaningo akuzange kufiphaze umuzwa wabo wokuthi bangobani kanye nomthelela imvelo enawo enhlalakahleni nasekunethezekeni kwabo. Kuze kube manje, bebengadingi muntu ozobatshela ukuthi bampofu futhi ngenxa yalokho, abazange bakhombise ukuthukuthela lapho bethi ubumpofu “badalwa” - ikakhulukazi buthonywe imvelo/imisebenzi kahulumeni - kanye/noma “ifa” – bakholelwa ukuthi kuwukuqhubeka kwesimo sabazali babo. Ngamandla okuzibona, okulandisa kanye nokuzindla, njengoba inkolelo-mbono ikhuthaza, iningi labahlanganyeli libonise ukuthi lalincishwa isikhathi sokuchitha nemindeni yabo kanye nemicimbi yokuzijabulisa. Ngokunjalo, lokhu kuncishwa kukhuthaza ukuguga nokungajabuli - izimo eziholela ekutheni abantu babukeke bebadala kuneminyaka yabo. Ngamafuphi, iningi lababambe iqhaza liveze ukuthi impilo abayiphilayo akuyona abangayikhetha kodwa yimpilo abakhethelwe yona, ngoba isimo sasendaweni yase Odi silimaza ukunethezeka kwabo. Noma kunjalo, banethemba lokuthi uma benikwa amandla, bazokwazi ukuphila impilo enhle - njengoba indlela yekhono likaSen ibamba ukuthi amakhono angathuthukiswa.