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5.3 SOUTHERN KINGDOM OF JUDAH
5.3.1   Hill Country of Judah
BETH-ZUR
Beth-Zur is identified as modern Khirbet Tubeiqah. It
was an important city in Judah located on the old
Jerusalem-Hebron road, about 20 miles south of Jerusalem
and 4.5 miles north of Hebron.  It controlled not only the
southern approach to Jerusalem, but important routes to the
Shephelah to the west.
Beth-Zur is mentioned in several scriptures. It was on
the town list for the territory of Judah (Joshua 15:58 and
1 Chronicles 2:45.), fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:7)
and later was the administrative center of a half-district
in the day of Nehemiah (3:16).
The excavations of Beth-Zur took place in 1931 and
1957, under the direction of O. R. Sellers.
Almost 8,000 square meters of the summit of the Tell
was cleared to bedrock in 1931. Fields I, II, and III were
assigned to the plan of the excavation. Continuous
excavation resulted in exposing the Iron Age I and II
levels, Middle Bronze, and Early Bronze.  Further work was
done on Fields I and III on the northeast side of the city
and Field II on the southeast. Both campaigns supplemented
each other and supported the results of the first
expedition.
Remains of the Iron Age I settlement are concentrated
for the most part on the north side of the hill. Numerous
walls and piers of houses were found for this period during
the 1931 dig. In 1957, it was discovered that during Iron
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Age I the city area had been reduced in size on the north
and a new city wall built. The early Israelite city
exhibits poor masonry, the reuse of earlier structures, and
a part of the city was destroyed in a fire, probably toward
the close of the eleventh century.  In the Iron period,
sections of the Middle Bronze Age city wall were repaired
and restored to use.
There was only a scant number of pottery shards found
for the Iron Age II period dating to the second half of the
seventh century. The settlers in the time of Josiah
apparently made no use of the earlier fortification, nor
did they build any of their own. Part of the Iron Age II
city was found outside the old wall. The architecture was
very limited. Eleven lamelech jar handles stamped with the
two-winged symbol and five handles stamped with the rosette
were found (Funk 1993:259-261).
 
 DEBIR (KHIRBET RABUD)
Tell Rabud is a mound of about 15 acres that is
located on the summit of a rocky hill surrounded on three
sides by the Hebron River bed and is 12 km (7.5 miles)
southwest of Hebron (Kochavi 1993a:1252).
Debir was originally a Canaanite city. In Joshua
15:15, Debir is called Kiriath Sepher or “town of books."
It is included with Anab, Socoh, and Eshtemoa, all of which
lay in a five-kilometer radius from Khirbet Rabud (Joshua
15:49).  It was assigned to Judah. It later became a
Levitical city (Josh. 21:15; 1 Chronicles 6:43-58), and an
administrative center in Judah.  Debir came under
Philistine influence in the twelfth century being destroyed
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by them about 1050 BCE during the battle of Ebenezer (1 Sam
4).
The identification of the site with Debir being
Kiriath Sepher was first proposed by K. Galling. There is
agreement between the archaeological finds and the biblical
account of the history of Debir.
Two short seasons of excavations were conducted at the
site in 1968 and 1969, sponsored by the Archaeological
Department of Tel Aviv University and the American
Institute of Holy Land Studies in Jerusalem.
They were directed by M. Kochavi. Two trenches (A and
B) were opened on the west side of the mound, and a number
of burial caves were investigated in the Ush e-Saqra
cemetery on the east side.
The first settlement on the mound dates from the Early
Bronze Age I. The first wall city dates from the Late
Bronze Age II (fourteenth century BCE). Tombs of this
period were also found which contained a large collection
of imported Cypriot and Mycenaean ware and local pottery of
this period.
Iron Age strata were encountered in two trenches. In
trench A, the stratum from the period of the Israelite
settlement (twelfth century BCE) lay directly above the
last Late Bronze Age level.  Rock-cut cisterns, as well as
a number of tombs were attributed to the tenth century.
A massive wall was erected in the ninth century BCE
(stratum III-B). It was revealed in both trenches, and
about 900 meters of its course could be traced on the
surface of the mound. The wall was some 4 meters thick and
enclosed an area of 50 dunams (about 12 acres). The gate
was probably erected on the north-east side. The
destruction level (stratum II-B), which was distinguished
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in all the rooms adjoining the wall, should be attributed
to Sennacherib's campaign in 701 BC. In this stratum, a
great amount of pottery was found including vessels with
lamelech stamps and a seal inscribed “Shalom son of Aha.”
The wall was rebuilt in the seventh century and it was
widened in places to 7 meters (strata IB, IIA). Khirbet
Rabud and the unwalled settlement were almost completely
destroyed with the destruction of the First Temple. Only a
few buildings, not surrounded by a wall, could be
attributed to the period of the return from the Babylonian
Exile (stratum I-A). A Roman watchtower on the summit of
the mound is the latest remnant of the ancient occupation
of the site (Kochavi 1993a: 1252).
GIBEAH
During its first period of Israelite settlement,
Gibeah was apparently the capital of the Benjaminites;
located on the main road leading from Judah and Jerusalem
to Mount Ephraim (Judges 19:11-13). It became the royal
residence of Saul after the victory he had with Jonathan
over the Philistines. It was renamed, Gibeah of Saul (1
Samuel 15:34). The abandonment of Gibeah is mentioned in
the description of the route of the Assyrian's invasion
from the north (Isaiah 10:29). Care must be taken when
studying about Gibeah because also North of Jerusalem is
Gibeon and what is thought to be Geba. These are all within
about 8 km (5 mi) or less of each other. See figure 5.1-1.
The modern name of the ancient site of Gibeah is Tell
el-Ful, located at a height of about 840 meters near the
Jerusalem-Nablus road, about 5 kilometers (3 miles) north
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of Jerusalem.  This mound was one of the first sites
excavated in Palestine. In 1868, C. Warren sent a group of
laborers to dig trenches on the north and south sides of
the mound and a small pit on the summit. These early
soundings had little or no archaeological value for the
subsequent excavators of the mound.
The American Schools of Oriental Research carried out
excavations at Tell el-Ful in 1922-23 and 1933 under the
direction of W. F. Albright, and in 1964 jointly with the
Pittsburgh Theological Seminary under the direction of P.
Lapp. Albright concentrated in two areas, the hillock on
top of the mound, where an ancient fortress once stood, and
the eastern edge of the mound, once occupied by an ancient
village.
Lapp extended the areas previously excavated and
uncovered a part of the western edge of the summit north of
the fortress tower. His finds confirmed the latest
stratigraphic analysis, differing only at several points
with the interpretation of the earlier excavators.
The earliest occupation of the mound seems to have
been in the Middle Bronze Age. Five periods of occupation
were found from the 12th century BCE to the 1st century CE.
The Iron Age town was founded about the twelfth
century.  Only fragmentary masonry remains of this first
period were uncovered in the fortress and eastern area.
This town was destroyed, probably at the hands of the
Israelites as described in Judges 19-20. A deep layer of
ash marks a great conflagration.
Large roughly dressed stones laid in irregular courses
characterized the construction of the first fortress (11th
century BCE). Only the southwest corner tower and parts of
the adjacent casemate walls were preserved. The fortress
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was a rectangle with casemate walls and reinforcing towers,
presumably one in each corner. Some casemates were filled
with earth and stones while others were used for storage,
having doorways into the fortress. A possible
reconstruction of the fortress would place its length at
about 52 meters, its width 35 meters, and the preserved
area of the tower about 13 by 9 meters. It seems probable
that Saul built fortress I, however B. Mazar suggested that
it was one of a series of Philistine fortresses built to
control the principal trade routes and later occupied by
Saul. Lapp challenged this by pointing out the fact that no
Philistine pottery was found beneath the fort that dated to
Saul's construction.
The stone masonry from the second fortress shows
improved workmanship in comparison with the previous one.
An iron plow tip was found which was similar to one found
at Beth-Shemesh. They can be considered as the earliest
known iron objects of Israelite date. Lapp found a 3-meter
section of wall north of the fortress tower which he
assigned to this period. The wall is not in line with the
outer fortress wall.
In the late 8th-7th century BCE, a third fortress was
erected. The new construction is more like a watch tower
(migdal). This fortress was built on and around the
southwest tower of the original citadel of the previous
period, and well-built revetments protected its outer
walls. The first phase (III-A) built in the late eighth
century BCE was probably destroyed during the Assyrian
attack on Jerusalem in 701 BCE. None of the pottery from
the period requires a date before the seventh century BCE,
but the situation under Hezekiah demanded a fortification
on the summit of Gibeah.
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There was a rebuilding and occupation in the seventh
century BCE.  The summit of Gibeah (III-B) is indicated by
the handles of jars bearing the royal stamps of the kingdom
of Judah (the flying-scroll type and the rosette design).
The Babylonians probably brought this phase to an end in
597 or 587 BCE (Lapp 1993b:445-448).
GIBEON
Biblical Gibeon has an interesting history. In 1838,
E. Robinson visited the village of el-Jib, 9 kilometers
(5.5 miles) north of Jerusalem, and identified it as the
site of biblical Gibeon. The discovery at el-Jib (during
the excavations of 1956, 1957, and 1959) produced thirty-
one jar handles inscribed with the name “GB’N” has now
confirmed the identification of Gibeon with el-Jib.
 Gibeon is first mentioned in Joshua 9. David defeated
the Philistines from Gibeon on the north to Gezer on the
south (1 Chron. 14:16). Solomon, at the outset of his
reign, came to Gibeon to sacrifice and there in a dream he
chose wisdom above other gifts that God offered him (1
Kings 3:3-15). People from Gibeon returned to Jerusalem
from the Captivity and helped rebuild the walls (Neh. 3:7;
7:25). Jeremiah confronted a false prophet from Gibeon in
the temple (Jer. 28:1).
The first major excavation was undertaken in 1956 by
an expedition sponsored by the University Museum of the
University of Pennsylvania and by the Church Divinity
School of the Pacific, with the cooperation of the American
Schools of Oriental Research, under the direction of J.B.
Pritchard. Work continued into 1962. Results showed that
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the site was occupied in the whole Bronze Age (Pritchard
1993:511-512.)
During the early part of the Iron Age I, a massive
city wall, 3.2 to 3.4 meters in width, was built around the
scarp of the natural hill. Two systems for providing the
inhabitants of the walled city with spring water in time of
siege were constructed during the Iron Age. The first is a
cylindrical cutting into the rock, 11.3 meters (25 cubits)
in diameter and 10.8 meters (24 cubits) deep. A spiral
staircase was cut along the north and east sides of the
pool. At the bottom, the stairway continues downward into a
tunnel to provide access to a water chamber which lies 13.6
meters below the floor of the pool. By means of this spiral
staircase of seventy-nine steps, the inhabitants of the
city had access to fresh water lying 24.4 meters below the
level of the city. This may have been the “pool of Gibeon”
mentioned in 2 Samuel 2:13. The second device for obtaining
water in time of siege is the stepped tunnel which leads
from inside the city wall to the spring of the village.
Gibeon was a center for the production and export of
wine in the eighth and seventh centuries BCE. In the course
of the excavations of 1959 and 1960, sixty-three rock-cut
cellars were found for the storage of wine at a constant
temperature of 18 degrees Centigrade (65 degrees
Fahrenheit). The cellars are bottle shaped and average 2.2
meters in depth and 2 meters in diameter at the bottom. The
opening at the top averages 0.67 meters in diameter. In the
same area, there were found wine presses carved from the
rock and channels for conducting the grape juice into
fermentation tanks and into settling basins. Wine was
stored in jars found in cellars. The jars had a capacity of
holding 93 - 94 gallons each. It is estimated that the
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sixty-three cellars would have provided storage space for
jars which would contain a total of 25,000 gallons of wine.
Smaller jars with inscribed handles were used for the
export of wine produced at Gibeon. The standard formula for
the inscriptions on the handles is “gb’ngdr” and one of the
following proper names: “hnnyhw nr’”, “’zryhw,” “’mryhw.”
The proper names of “dml’” and “sb’l” also appear in a
slightly different formula. Stoppers and a funnel for
filling the jars were found (Pritchard 1993:512-513).
HEBRON
Hebron is located about 30 km. (19 miles) S of
Jerusalem in the hill country. The site of ancient Hebron
is named el-Khalil (Arabic for “The Friend” of God
[Abraham]).
Hebron is first mentioned in the Bible in connection
with Abraham. In his time the residents of the area were
the "sons of Heth" (Hittites) and the Amorites (Gen. 14:13;
23:7-8). Originally, Hebron was called Kiriath Arba (“four-
fold city” Gen. 23:2; 35:27; Josh 15:54; Neh.11:25). David
was a fugitive here (1 Sam.30:31).
The site was an important fortress for Rehoboam (2
Chron. 11:10). During the Exile, the Edomites probably
occupied the city, although it appears from Neh. 11:25 that
Jewish exiles did colonize the site to some extent.
Because of the continuous occupation of the site,
archaeological work has encountered great difficulties.
During 1963-64, a trench was opened in the Wadi Tuffah on
the western outskirts of Hebron. This produced only late
Islamic fill above the bedrock. Two probes were conducted
on Jebel Batraq, to the N of Hebron.
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The most important areas investigated, however, were
located on the slopes of Jebel er-Rumeide located just W of
modern Hebron. Stratigraphic indications pointed to
occupation during the Iron Age I and II, as well as the
Late Bronze I and before.
Hebron was named on a number of royal stamp
impressions found on jar handles discovered when Gibeon
(el-jib) was excavated. The seals had a winged beetle on
them, four Hebrew letters (“lmlk” [“for the king”]) and the
names of four ancient places, Hebron, Socoh, Ziph, and
Memshath. For more information see Chapter 4.5 titled
Inscriptions. (Ofer 1993:606-609).
JERUSALEM
Jerusalem is located more than 48 km. (30 miles) E of
the Mediterranean Sea and 32 km. (20 miles) W of the N end
of the Dead Sea. The altitude of the present city is about
2,500 feet above the standard sea level.
The following information on Jerusalem was obtained
from an article written by Nahman Avigad (Avigad 1993b:698-
724).
Jerusalem is mentioned in the Egyptian Execration
Texts of the nineteenth-eighteenth centuries BCE in a form
probably to be read “Rushalimun.” In the el-Amarna letters,
of the fourteenth century BCE, it appears as “Urusalim” and
in the Sennacherib inscriptions (seventh century BCE) as
“Uruslimmu.” The early Hebrew pronunciation appears to be
“Yerushalem,” as is evidence by the spelling in various
inscriptions and by its form in the Septuagint.
The original meaning of its name may have related to
the West Semitic elements “yru'” and “slm,” which have been
interpreted as “Foundation of Shalem.”  “SLM” or “Shalem”
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would, in such Semitic languages, generally be understood
to mean “peace” or “completion.”  A name of a particular
“Shalem” is known from a Ugaritic mythological text which
identifies their god’s name, “Shalem” as meaning
“completion.”  A few hundred kilometers North of Jerusalem
at Ras Shamra (Ugarit) there was a god named Shalem, who
with his twin Shahar (day star), is known from texts
recovered from there. Shalem was represented by the evening
manifestation, the Venus “star,” and was perhaps a deity
worshiped by the Canaanite population of the area. In the
fourteenth-century BCE, the Tell el-Amarna tablets
identified Jerusalem as “Urusalim.”  It was also known
under the form “Beth-Shalem,” which again related to the
local deity and his cultic center.  The Priest of God Most
High was identified as Melchizedek “King of Salem” (King of
Peace) in Gen. 14:18 when he met Abram/Abraham. Later in
Psalm 76:2, the Tabernacle and dwelling place of God in
Judah were identified as in Zion.
The city has been built and rebuilt and modified so
many times that great care must be taken to differentiate
what is found and how it relates to other construction. The
Bible gives considerable information on the various kings
and their construction efforts. Therefore the text needs
some brief review, including the time periods just before
and after the divided kingdom period.
The city was known also as Jebus, an ethnic name of
the people (Yebusi, Jebusites) who lived there at least
from when the Israelites were settling the land of Canaan
down to when the city was conquered by David. Araunah, was
apparently the last pre-Israelite ruler of the city. In the
Scripture, it relates that "the king and his men went to
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Jerusalem unto the Jebusites, the inhabitants of the land.
David took the stronghold of Zion: the same is the “City of
David" (2 Samuel 5:6-7). The name, “City of David,” was
given to the citadel of Zion by the king himself. “And
David dwelt in the fort and called it the City of David” (2
Samuel 5:9; 1 Chronicles 11:7). The early name of “Zion”
specified the eastern hill of the city, with its northern
summit (Mount Zion), later known also as the Temple Mount,
the “mountain of the Lord,” and the “mountain of the House
of the Lord.” This was the area where Solomon built the
Temple and the royal palace. The Temple Mount is also
identified as Mount Moriah (2 Chronicles 3:1), the holy
mountain in the “land of Moriah" (Genesis 22:2).
    The sources in the Bible provide considerable
information on the persistent efforts of the kings of Judah
to fortify and glorify Jerusalem.
Special importance seems to have been attached to the
establishment of the High Court in Jerusalem by Jehoshaphat
(2 Chronicles 19). Of interest also are the descriptions of
the repairs carried out in the city's defenses. Uzziah did
much to reinforce the fortifications of the city in the
difficult days of Assyria's rise in the mid-eighth century
BCE (2 Chronicles 26). Great attention was given to the new
citadel which was built to the south of the Temple Mount,
between the royal palace and the City of David.  A new
phase in the history of Jerusalem began under Hezekiah,
when the destruction of the kingdom of Israel and its
capital Samaria (722 BCE) led to renewed ties between Judah
and the remnant of the population of the northern kingdom.
The new political and economic conditions which came
about in the days of Sargon II of Assyria (722-705 BCE)
again raised Jerusalem to the status of the national-
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religious and economic center for the entire nation. This
enabled Hezekiah: to achieve a strong position for his
country between Assyria and Egypt; to extend the political
borders of Judah in the Negev and in Philistia; to take an
important role in the trade with Egypt and Arabia; and to
carry out religious reforms. However, the struggle of the
Assyrian Empire for hegemony over the lands of the West and
its conflict with Egypt brought Judah, too, into the surge
of war.
Before Sennacherib’s campaign in 701 BCE, Hezekiah
achieved a number of building projects in Jerusalem. These
included: the strengthening of the Millo and the city wall
with its towers; the construction of a new wall (2
Chronicles 32:5); and the blocking of all sources of water
outside the city. This also involved the diversion of the
waters of the Gihon spring through the famous tunnel to the
pool of Siloam. See Section 4.3.7.5, titled Jerusalem Water
System in this dissertation.
      Another phase in the city's history began toward the
end of the reign of Manasseh (698-642 BCE) with
refortification of Jerusalem, its citadel, and building of
a new outer wall (2 Chron. 33:14). Eventually Jerusalem was
captured by Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, in 597 BCE,
with destruction of the Temple and the further exile in 586
BCE.
Excavations of Jerusalem have revealed much about this
important Biblical site. The finds have been tremendous
dating from the Jebusite period (3,000 BCE) to the Islamic
period. The following is a summary of the primary finds
that date to or are related to the Israelite (Iron Age)
period in Jerusalem:
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The earliest settlements at Jerusalem were established
on the ridge of Ophel Hill close to the Spring of Gihon in
the Kidron Valley.  The earliest city wall was near the
base of the slope. The wall of large unhewn boulders was
first uncovered by Kathleen Kenyon in her excavations of
1961-66. A considerable stretch of wall was exposed by
Yigal Shiloh. Both investigators dated the wall to the
Middle Bronze Age, about 1800 BCE.
Some scholars consider the Bronze Age city on this
site to have been the “Salem” whose king, Melchizedek,
encountered the Hebrew patriarch Abram/Abraham (Genesis
14:18; cf. Psalm 76:2). The city behind this wall is
undoubtedly the “Urusalim” referred to in the Tel el-Amarna
Tablets. After David captured the city in or about 996 BCE
(2 Samuel 5:6-9), the Israelites built their city wall
along the same line used in the Bronze Age. At some points,
they built directly on top of the earlier foundations. When
Israelites built their domestic houses on the slopes above,
however, they largely destroyed earlier structures as they
dug through the debris of their predecessors’ dwellings to
find solid footing on bedrock for their own new homes. The
house walls that appear today behind the city wall are from
the 10th-7th centuries BCE, Israelite occupation. The
remains of other homes of the period undoubtedly lie
beneath the modern homes which now stand on the hill crest.
A 50-foot-high stepped-structure was founded on the
rubble of 13th-century BCE Canaanite remains. It has been
determined that the stepped-structure itself was built
about the 10th century BCE, in as much as Israelite houses
of the following centuries were built up against its east
face. Its uppermost courses were still in use in the Second
Temple Period. It served as part of the defense wall of the
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city from the time of Nehemiah’s rebuilding in the 5th
century BCE through the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom.
In 1923, Irish archaeologist R. A. S. Macalister
mistakenly identified the square tower as a fortification
from David's time and the stepped-structure as a remnant of
the pre-10th century BCE. It was labeled, "David’s Tower".
In 1961, Kathleen Kenyon excavated and based on her
work she determined that the so-called "David's Tower" had
to be dated to the Second Temple Period. After Kenyon’s
discoveries, it was generally assumed that the stepped-
structure also had been built after the 6th-century BCE
Exile. The 7th century BCE house walls which Kenyon
discovered seemed to be built under the stepped-structure.
In 1980, when Yigal Shiloh re-excavated the area, he found
that the stepped-structure was much older. He discovered
that the stepped-structure continued downward behind the
Israelite house walls of a total depth of over 50 feet.
The massive construction now appears to date from the
pre-Davidic Jebusite period and to have been re-used in
David's and Solomon’s building activities. While its
purpose is not entirely clear, it may be a retaining wall
for an earthen platform which would have stood prominently,
high above the city of the time, perhaps as the sitting for
an important royal building. It was not part of the outer
defense wall of either the Jebusite or Davidic city. Those
walls were located by Kenyon about 100 feet down the slope
to the east. Whatever the wall’s function in the First
Temple Period, Shiloh discovered that after the return from
the Babylonian Exile the upper portion of the structure,
still poking up above the earlier city's rubble, was faced
with a thick “glaces” (glaze). The glaces was composed of
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alternating layers of pebbles and beaten earth to form a
steep slippery defense bastion.
The modest walls and steps in the lower left belonged
to a domestic house of the 8th to 7th century BCE and are
typical of the Israelite house architecture exposed on the
slope. These walls are of natural or roughly hewn small
boulders. Roof support inside the rooms was provided either
by stacked flat boulders or by monolithic pillars which
were topped by wooden posts. Because of the steepness of
the ridge slope, retaining walls had to be built to provide
horizontal terrace platforms. House builders then sometimes
utilized space on two or more terraces for a house, using
steps to connect the rooms of the split-level structure.
In the excavation on Ophel Hill a wall dating to the
Jebusite period was uncovered. The wall was reconstructed
during the later Israelite period and was there when the
city was captured by the Babylonians in the 6th century
BCE.
Several Proto-Aeolic capitals (dating to the 10th
century BCE) were found in the excavation on Ophel Hill.
They are similar to those found at Megiddo, Hazor and
Samaria. This style of capital has been labeled both
“Proto-Aeolic” and “Proto-Ionic” because its shape may have
inspired those two capital styles in later Greek
architecture. Styles like this with the “lily work” design
may be like the capitals of the two special columns which
stood at the entrance to Solomon’s Temple (1 Kings 7:19,
22).
In 1867 Charles Warren excavated a water tunnel and
part of a connecting shaft that he discovered on the
eastern side of Ophel Hill. He determined that this was
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Hezekiah’s tunnel.  For details and illustrations regarding
Hezekiah’s tunnel and Warren’s shaft see Section 4.3.7.5
titled Jerusalem Water System in this dissertation.
 
In 1970, Nahman Avigad’s excavations in Areas A of the
modern Jewish Quarter of the Old City exposed a wall that
dated to the late 8th century BCE.  Houses of the 8th - 7th
centuries BCE were also uncovered here. The wall had an
attached floor, and all alongside of it were Iron Age
sherds.
Further excavations revealed more complete pottery
vessels and other objects that showed the level was an
Israelite settlement. The buildings were built of undressed
stones and had plastered walls. The finer floors were made
of a thick layer of crushed and tamped whitening waste
material (Hebrew “shlk” something thrown out; Arabic
“hawar” whiten). The poorer floors were of beaten clay with
a coating of lime. The fill beneath the floors was
generally of red earth.
Potsherds were found in a great quantity. The complete
vessels were ordinary household items, especially kitchen
utensils of the sort usually found on any Judean site of
the 8th-7th centuries BCE. These kitchen utensils included:
bowls, kraters, jugs and juglets, cooking pots and storage
jars. Many of them had an outer red coating and were
burnished over their entire surface or in bands, typical of
Iron Age II pottery from Judah. Pottery oil lamps were
represented by bowl-like vessels-with rounded bases typical
in the 8th century BCE, flat bases in the 7th century BCE
and high bases in the late 7th and early 6th centuries BCE.
Another category of pottery common in this period was
the various figurines and statuettes. The figurines were in
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the shapes of animals. Others were statuettes, depicting
women supporting their exposed breasts with their two
hands. The head is generally molded separately and then
attached onto the cylindrical body.
The uncovering of this Israelite wall was a slow
process. The main point of interest, the uncovering of the
first segment some 40 meters long, running from north to
south in Area A, occurred during the 1969-1970 excavation,
under the supervision of Ami Mazar. At first an paved area
of large stones in several “squares" of excavation was
noticed beneath the remains of the Second temple period.
When this was exposed, it was proven to be one huge wall.
The course of the wall was exposed as far northward as
possible, eventually exposing a continuous stretch 40
meters long. Iron Age II pottery was found all along the
wall’s base. In summary, the Israelite wall is situated on
the northern edge of the Jewish Quarter, about 275 meters
west of the Western Wall of the Temple Enclosure.
Uncovered was a stretch of some 65 meters, 45 meters of
which ran on the north-south line. The wall turned westward
and continued to the start of the Byzantine Cardo. The date
of the wall is the Late Israelite period (8th-7th centuries
BCE).
Further details regarding on Jerusalem can be obtained
from the article written by Naham Avigad (Avigad 1993b:698-
724).
MIZPAH (TELL EN-NASBEH)
Tell en-Nasbeh situated 12 kilometers (7.5 miles)
north of Jerusalem is generally identified with biblical
Mizpah, an identification suggested by A. Raboission in
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1897 and by C. R. Conder independently in 1898. Some
scholars, however, reject this identification, preferring
to locate Mizpah at Nabi Samwil about 8 kilometers (5
miles) northwest of Jerusalem, and suggest identifying Tell
en-Nasbeh with other sites such as Ataroth-Addar. Ataroth-
Addar, however, is mentioned only in the boundary
descriptions in Joshua (16:2, 16:7, 18:13) and so was
apparently a place of little significance. But Tell en-
Nasbeh provided some significant cultural finds.
Asa fortified Mizpah with the stones from Ramah
according to 1 Kings 15:22. The site’s major importance in
biblical times was as Judah’s northernmost border fortress
(Zorn 1993:1098).
Excavations were done by W.F. Bade of the Pacific
School of Religion in Berkeley from 1926-1935. The early
occupations of Tell en-Nasbeh dated to Late Chalcolithic
and Early Bronze Age I.  The site was abandoned and then
resettled in Iron Age I (stratum 4) dated to the twelfth
century BCE. This was determined by the Philistine pottery
and early local forms, such as collared-rim storage jars.
Many rock-cut installations such as cisterns, silos, and
winepresses appeared to have been dug during this period
and continued to be used into the later Iron Age I and II
as was determined by the pottery found.
Iron Age II (stratum 3) findings were significant. On
the western side of the mound a 2 m thick wall was
uncovered.  The back rooms of some houses (composed of
either three or four rooms) were built against the wall.
The town did not change and no destruction level was found
for what appears to be almost 400 years.  The structures
remained the same into Iron Age II (Zorn 1993:1099).
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Two towers were erected outside the casemate as
reinforcements to the town’s defenses before the offset-
inset wall was built: one on the west and the other on the
northwest.  Both contain two narrow chambers.  The houses
in this period were initially built with walls one stone
thick. In later phases, the walls of rebuilding, additions,
and new constructions were usually wider and two stones
thick.  The general plan was to have two rooms (a courtyard
and a room) parallel along their lengths, with a shorter
room across the back.  Larger dwellings have three long
chambers, and one in the back.  Some had their own
cisterns. Some had second stories with stairs. Olive
presses and storage facilities in six buildings show that
this type of structure was used for industrial purposes.
The major addition to the town plan was the massive
new wall and gate complex, which is usually associated with
Asa’s fortification of Mizpah.  It is estimated to have
stood 12 to 14 m above bedrock, and at least its lower half
was covered with hard plaster.  Eleven towers dotted it and
they ranged from between 6 to 9 m in thickness, including
the wall.  Most of the stones used were unhewn and laid in
mud mortar, with smaller stones used for chinking. The
towers were protected by a stone glacis, and long sections
of the wall itself on the western and eastern sides were
protected in this way.  Retaining walls were found along
one part of the eastern glacis and along one section of the
northern wall.  Three sections of a dry moat were excavated
along the perimeter of the defenses.
The gate complex consisted of an outer and inner gate.
In the steeply sloping area between the original city wall
and the ninth-century wall, a large fill was poured to
provide a level surface. In the southern half of this oval
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band, a chain of stone-lined bins was dug, creating new
storage facilities (Zorn 1993:1101).
Tell en-Nasbeh’s cemeteries contained a number of Iron
Age tombs.  Four were especially rich (5, 29, 32, and 54),
yielding almost sixteen hundred objects.  Tomb 5 was
rectangular, had a court, entrance stairwell, a chamber
with three benches, and a rear chamber for funeral
deposits.  The other tombs were oval shaped (Zorn
1993:1101).
Epigraphic finds include: inscribed ostraca; weights;
scarabs; a cylinder seal; seal impressions and weights with
seven lamelekh impressions.  The major find of Iron II was
a seal “belonging to Jaazmiah, servant of the king.”  He is
possibly the servant mentioned in 2 Kings 25:23. Farming in
the settlement was apparent by the number of iron plows,
knives and sickles found.  Other smaller finds include:
querns, mortars, pestles, spears, arrowheads (bronze),
dishes, fibulaes, jewelry, and female pillar figurines.
Pottery production was attested by a large kiln found in
the southwestern corner of the mound (Zorn 1993:1101). The
Babylonian period was identified by the material finds in
stratum 2. This included a palace, storehouses, dwellings,
and multiple small finds(Zorn 1993:1102).
RAMAT RAHEL (Beth-Haccerem)
Ramat Rahel is located midway between the Old City of
Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Excavations on the mound itself
were undertaken in 1954. After five seasons of excavations
the following main occupational levels found were Early
Arab, Late, Middle and Early Byzantine, Late Roman,
Herodian, and Iron Age III and II (Stratum V-B).
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The results of the excavations prompted Y. Aharoni to
suggest that the site is to be identified with Beth-
Haccerem, an assumption shared by most scholars. Beth-
Haccerem is first mentioned in a roster of Judean cities of
the Bethlehem district which cannot be earlier than the
ninth century BCE.
In the time of Jeremiah, fire signals to warn
Jerusalem were sent up from Beth-Haccerem (Jeremiah 6:1).
In the days of Nehemiah, Beth-Haccerem (“cerem” means
“vineyard") was a district center located close to
Jerusalem. The later citadel and the palace, which was
described by Jeremiah (22:13-19), were probably built by
Jehoiakim, son of Josiah (609-598 BCE).  The window
balustrades found in the excavations (stratum V-A) are
apparently those mentioned by Jeremiah in the above-named
passage (Aharoni 1993c:1261).
     Most of the remains of stratum V-B(eighth to seventh
century BCE) were destroyed during the construction work
carried out by the builders of stratum A. Near the
southeast edge of the mound the excavators uncovered a
section of a casemate wall which probably belongs to this
stratum. One of its walls, which had been preserved above
floor level, is built of ashlar masonry.  On the northern
slope of the mound, the excavators discovered a quarry
which supplied the building stones and which was covered by
the wall of stratum V-A. The early citadel was not large
since less than 50 meters north of the casemate wall was an
agricultural terrace.  At a distance of 100 meters north of
the casemate wall were the remains of a house, evidently a
private dwelling that had been built at the foot of the
royal citadel and was later destroyed and filled with
stones when the wall of stratum V-A was erected. Two seal
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impressions were found in this house bearing the
inscription “[Belonging} to Shebna {the son of} Shahar.”
The same seal impression is known from Tell en-Nasbeh
(Mizpah) and Lachish. Most of the finds made in this
stratum came from the fill used to level the ground in
constructing stratum V-A. The pottery was of the eighth and
seventh centuries BCE. One hundred forty-five jar handles
with the royal (lamelekh) stamp were found, most of them of
the two-winged type (class C) and some of the four-winged
type (classes A and B). More than half came from the rubble
fill of stratum V-B, and it appears that they belonged to
this stratum and in all probability went out of use before
its end. Seal impressions were also found with names, some
identical with stamps discovered at other Judean mounds,
such as Tell en Nasbeh, Beth-Shemesh, and Lachish. One
handle bore two impressions side by side, one lamelech of
Hebron with the two-winged  symbol and the other a private
seal (belonging) to Nera (son of) Shebna (Aharoni
1993c:1263).
This is the first instance that the impressions of
royal and private seals were found stamped on the same
handle. A Hebrew ostracon was also found bearing two names,
Ahiyahu and Hasdiyahu.
Significant findings from stratum V-A included a new
fortress and building that contained an inner and outer
citadel.
All the former buildings seem to have been razed to
the ground and the terrain of the hill was considerably
changed (Aharoni 1993c:1263).
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5.3.2  SHEPHELAH SITES
AZEKAH
 
Azekah is known as Tell Zakariya stands on a high hill
at the northern end of a ridge, 9 kilometers (5.5 miles)
northeast of Beth Govrin. The mound is some 400 meters
above sea level and 117 meters above the Valley of Elah,
which skirts the hill on the north and east. The western
slope is quite steep, but to the south it is linked to the
ridge by a mountain saddle. The mound is flat topped, and
only its southeastern section rises approximately 6 meters
above the level of the ridge. The top of the mound is
triangular in shape and attains the sizable proportions of
330 by 170 meters.
 Azekah is first mentioned in the story of the flight
of the five kings whom Joshua defeated at Gibeon and “smote
them as far as Azekah” (Joshua 10:10-11). During the
encounter of David with Goliath, the Philistines camped in
the valley of Elah between Socoh and Azekah. The town lay
within the confines of the northern Shephelah district of
Judah (Joshua 15:35).
Rehoboam (922-915 BCE) fortified Azekah and included
it within the defensive system erected after the division
of the United Monarchy (2 Chronicles 11:9).
An Assyrian inscription, now in the British Museum
mentions Azekah in connection with a military campaign in
Palestine. H. Tadmor maintains that the inscription refers
to Sargon II's expedition in 712 BCE against Iamani, ruler
of Ashdod. The inscription reads, “In the city of Azaqa (a-
za-ka-a) his stronghold, which is situated in the midst
like a pointed dagger [...] [it was made like an eagle’s]
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nest and rivaled the highest mountains and was
inac[cessible..] [..even for siege ram]mps and for
approaching with battering rams, it was [too] strong..”
(Tadmor 1958:80-84).
 Still later Azekah and Lachish are mentioned as the
last fortresses of Judah to withstand the Babylonian
onslaught (Jeremiah 34:7). A similar item of information
appears in one of the Lachish letters (Number 4), “He would
know that for the signal stations of Lachish we are
watching, according to all the signs which my lord gives
because we do not see [the signals of] Azekah.” The town
was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon apparently in
588 BCE, a short while before the fall of Jerusalem.
   Azekah was excavated from 1898-99 for a total of 12
months in three sessions by F. J. Bliss and R. A. S.
Macalister. They published their work in 1902.
 The mound was divided into four sections. Section 1
was located in the southwest and the foundations of three
towers (each were 6 to 6.5 meters long) were found. The
ceramic finds were from the Roman-Byzantine period.
Section 2 was in the southeastern section. Here a
rectangular fortress was uncovered with a tower at each
corner. Additional towers stood at the middle of the
western and northern walls, and perhaps the eastern wall as
well. The fortress gate was not discovered, although
several doorways inside the towers were found. The entrance
levels varied in height, and it seems that the fortress
interior was not of equal height throughout.
The foundations of the tower walls and the fortress
were submerged in bedrock. The parts beneath ground level
were built of chipped stones bond with a mortar made of
clay and gravel and set at uneven building levels. Above
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ground level the walls were of ashlar with marginal
dressing, laid in straight courses. All the towers were
attached to the fortress wall from the back without forming
an integral part of it, except one. The towers varied in
size ranging from 9.15 to 10.75 meters. The tower
projections were from 4.75 to 5.45 meters. Bliss and
Macalister were both of the opinion that the fortress and
towers had been constructed at the same time by different
groups of masons. Both dated the construction of the
fortress to Rehoboam (928-911 BCE) (2 Chronicles 11:9).
Other Israelite fortresses of similar construction
from a later date were found at: Kadesh-Barnea; Khirbet
Ghazzeh; Khirbet Rasm edh Dhab'a which is between Azekah
and Tell Judeida; and at Arad. This led S. Yeivin to
determine that the fortress at Azekah was constructed in
the time of the Judges. He determined that the wall of city
plus the repair of the fortress came during the time of
Rehoboam. Another significant point was the fact that the
excavation produced several stamped handles containing the
word “lamelech” and the two winged scarab. This type of
seal impression dated to the ninth-eighth century BCE(
Stern 1993c:123-124).
BETH SHEMESH 
Tel Beth-Shemesh of Judah is near the modern city of
Beth-Shemesh, 12.5 miles west of Jerusalem. The city was
founded in the Middle Bronze Age and existed, with
interruptions, until the Byzantine period. Except for the
Bible, it is not mentioned in ancient documents. Its name
(“House of the Sun”) is apparently of Canaanite origin and
is meant to designate a city were there was once a temple
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to the sun god. It is called “Ir-shemesh,” “City of Sun” in
Joshua 19:41. In Israel’s tribal lists (Joshua 19:41),
Beth-Shemesh was allotted to Dan, but it also appears on
the northern boundary of Judah and as a Levitical city in
Judah (Joshua 21:16). The city was clearly Israelite in the
tenth century BCE, when the Ark was returned there from
Philistia (1 Samuel 6:9). It is not mentioned as a site of
importance in Israel's history after the tenth century BCE.
Rehoboam fortified Zorah instead of Beth-Shemesh (2
Chronicles 11:10), although the town is mentioned as the
scene of the battle between Joash of Israel and Amaziah of
Judah (2 Kings 14:11, 2 Chronicles 25:21). During the reign
of Ahaz, the Philistines seized the city from Judah (2
Chronicles 28:18).
Beth-Shemesh was first excavated by D. Mackenzie for
the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1911-12. A Bronze Age
city wall was followed throughout its course around the
city, and a city gate belonging to it, with three entries,
was excavated on the south side of the mound. Four strata
were distinguished. The earliest, from the Bronze Age,
ended with the cessation of Mycenaean and Cypriote
importations. The second stratum was characterized by
Philistine ware. The city of this stratum was destroyed by
a fire.
The third stratum divided into two phases, the first
interpreted as ending with the invasion of Sennacherib in
701 BCE, and the seconds as a reoccupation in the Late
Israelite Period (Lederman 1993:249).  
Five seasons of excavation by the Haverford College
Expedition were conducted in 1928-1933, under the direction
of E. Grant.
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 The city of Stratum II-A dates from the early tenth
century BCE when the Tel Erani (Tell esh-Sheikh Ahmed el-
‘Areini) site was retaken by David. A casemate repair of
the old city wall was found. One large structure appears to
have been built as the residence for an important person. A
large public granary was found in the southeast section of
the stratum, consisting of three long parallel rooms
surrounded by well-built walls (1.5 to 1.75 meters thick).
A large stone-lined silo (diameter, 7.5 meters was on the
north-south axis and 6.5 meters on the east-west axis) for
grain storage was found east of the residence. It was
plastered to a depth of about 4 meters, but its base may
have been deeper. Its size suggests it was for public
rather than private use (Lederman 1993:250-251).
 After the tenth century BCE the site was an
unfortified village. The building remains of the seventh
century BCE were so eroded that little could be made of
them. Quantities of pottery from the end of the Iron Age II
indicate that the site was destroyed in the Babylonian
conquest of Judah. Houses of the period between the tenth
and eighth centuries BCE were published as belonging to one
level. On the western side of the excavation, there were
houses built around the edge of the mound and facing inward
upon a street that turned in a large semicircle within the
occupied area. Evidences of reconstruction were plentiful.
There were vats found for olive oil and dyeing industries,
plus a large number of grape presses. A series of tombs
dating to the eighth-seventh centuries BCE were excellent
examples of late Judean tombs. They consisted of a room in
the slope of the rock, entered by a square-cut door with
steps leading down into it. On three sides are benches for
the burials. At the rear a pit or repository was dug to
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store older bones when new burials were made. The entrance
was sealed by a stone plug. There were a number of eighth-
seventh century BCE seals and royal stamped jar handles. Of
special interest was a stamped handle with the inscription
“l’lyqm (n)’r ywkn,” "Belonging to Eliakim, Steward (na'ar)
of Jehoiachin (Yawkin)." It was stamped with the same seal
as two stamped handles found by Albright at Tell Beit
Mirsim (Lederman 1993:252-253).
TEL ERANI (Tell esh-Sheikh Ahmed el-‘Areini)
This is in the Coastal Plain, inland from Ashkelon,
opposite the remains of an abandoned Arab village.
Excavations were carried out between 1956 and 1961 by the
Israel Department of Antiquities.  In 1985-88, further
excavation was done by Tel Aviv and Ben-Gurion
Universities.  Iron Age I and II remains were found. The
Iron Age I evidence was very scarce although there were
significant finds such as Astarte figurines, vessels, and
some fortification in the way of a glacis and a square
structure. Iron II houses were found with sections of
earthen floors. Areas K-M were valuable, with Area K being
most interesting. Remains of a pottery kiln and a cooking
oven were uncovered. Some pavement was present (Yeivin
1993:417-418 & 421).
 
GEZER
Gezer is located 30 kilometers (18 miles) NW of
Jerusalem, between the Valley of Sorek and the Valley of
Aijalon (Hebrew “Ayalon”). Gezer is situated on the last of
the foothills in the Judean Range, where it slopes down to
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meet the northern Shephelah.  It guards one of the most
important crossroads in the country, where the trunk road
leading to Jerusalem and sites in the hills branches off
from the Via Maris at the approach to the Ayalon Valley.
It possesses plentiful springs just at the base of the
mound and fertile fields in the nearby valleys.
Strong Canaanite defenses were over-thrown by Pharaoh
Thutmosis III in 1468 BCE. Egypt then controlled the city.
Ten el-Amarna letters from Gezer show the city vacillated,
but finally remained loyal to Egypt in the 14th century BCE.
At the time of the Hebrew conquest, its Canaanite king,
Horam, tried to help Lachish, but was defeated (Josh.
10:33; 12:12). Gezer was not taken by the Israelites (Josh.
16:10; Judges 1:29).  Even so, the city was included in
Ephraim’s territory as a Levitical city (Josh. 16:10;
Judges 1:29). Soon after the Conquest, Pharaoh Merneptah
(1207 BCE) claims on his stele to have recaptured it.
Archaeological evidence indicates that after 1200 BCE, the
Philistines controlled the city, possibly with Egyptian
approval, which may explain David’s battles in this region
(2 Sam.5:25).
Gezer became an Israelite possession when the Egyptian
pharaoh gave it to his daughter on her marriage to Solomon,
who rebuilt the city and its defenses (1 Kings 9:15-17).
Excavations (1964-73) uncovered a typical Solomonic gate
and defenses.
The first excavations at Gezer were conducted between
1902-1909 by R. A. S. Macalister for the Palestine
Exploration Fund (Dever 1993:497). Macalister began at the
eastern end of the mound with a series of trenches, each
about 10 meters wide, running the entire width of the
mound. He dug each trench down to bedrock (as deep as 13
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meters in some places). Then, proceeding to the next
trench, he dumped the debris into the trench he had just
completed, intending, as he put it, “to turn over the whole
mound.”
From his notion of stratification, he was able to
recognize as many as nine strata. His failure to provide
trained staff meant that he lost control of the mass of
excavated material and he was unable to correlate his
strata as he moved from one trench to the next. The tragedy
of Macalister’s excavation at Gezer was that a mass of rich
material was torn from context and published in such a way
as to make it virtually useless for reconstructing the
history of the site.
The next excavations were in 1934 under the direction
of A. Rowe for the Palestine Exploration Fund. The dig
primarily exposed an Early Bronze cave and a Middle Bronze
tower and inner wall.
Hebrew Union College took over the excavation from
1964-73. The project was directed in 1964-65 by Wright,
from 1966 through 1971 by W. G. Dever, and in 1972-73 by J.
D. Seger.  Nelson Glueck was adviser from 1964 through
1971. A professional staff of thirty was joined each season
by some one hundred student volunteers. The material finds
were from Chalcolithic into the Iron Age.
In Iron I, strata XIII-XI showed evidence of the
Philistine period. The Acropolis, phase 5 (12th century BCE)
showed destruction from fire. Pottery, houses, and other
structures were uncovered (Dever 1993:504).
The first Israelite level is stratum VIII (10th century
BCE).  Y. Yadin identified a typical Solomonic four-chamber
city gate, almost identical to those previously discovered
and published from Megiddo and Hazor.
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The gate was exceptionally well built, with
foundations in the guardrooms going some 2 meters below the
surface and with fine ashlar masonry at the jambs.
Plastered benches ran around the three walls of each inner
chamber, a feature considered so essential that each time
floor levels were raised these benches were also raised and
replastered. Roofs over these inner chambers are indicated
by a plastered downspout drain at the rear corner of the
gate structure. Shortly after its construction about the
mid-tenth century BCE, the gate was altered by the raising
of the street level and the addition of a large drain, over
a meter wide, running down the middle of the street and
under the threshold.
The casemate wall connected with the gate has been
investigated in field II, and it is also Solomonic in date.
The domestic architecture of stratum VIII was not
impressive, perhaps indicating that Gezer was probably
under Solomonic control for a short time and was an
administrative center (Dever 1993:505).
In field VI, large ashlars identical to those in the
gate were found in secondary usage in a citadel wall of
about the Assyrian period. This was virtually all that
survived from the post-Philistine period, for this reason
it is possible that there was a Solomonic fortress or
palace on the acropolis.
Several tombs were found that date to the late tenth
century BCE. The pottery was typical of the period, with
the red-slipped wares of the previous period now hand
burnished. Among the small objects, was a small limestone
incense altar inscribed with a stick figure who resembles
the Canaanite storm god Ba'al, with an uplifted arm
grasping a bundle of lightning bolts.
481
 A destruction particularly heavy in the vicinity of
the gateway, brought stratum VIII to an end in the late
tenth century BCE. This was probably the work of Shishak
about 924 BCE, as part of his well-known raid in Judah.
From this period an important inscription was found,
it was the Gezer Calendar. It was written in one of the
earliest Hebrew inscriptions in the last half of the 10th
century BCE.  It was perhaps a schoolboy’s exercise tablet,
giving an account of the seasons of the agricultural year.
See further information see Sections 4.5.7.5 (Literacy and
Inscription) and 4.10.1 (Farms and Equipment) of this
dissertation.
Macalister’s careless selection and publication of the
material of the Iron Age II, led most scholars, including
Albright, to assume that the site was virtually abandoned
in the ninth-seventh centuries BCE. However, Macalister’s
tombs 28, 31, 84-85 upper, and 142 belonged to Iron Age II,
and the gap has been closed by stratum VII-V. The
occupation was slight during this time and the site
declined following Shishak’s destruction (Dever 1993:505).
In stratum VII (ninth century BCE), the Solomonic gate
was rebuilt. This gate survived until stratum VI was
destroyed; probably by Tiglath-Pileser III in the Assyrian
campaigns of 734-33 BCE. Two cuneiform tablets found in the
early excavations belong to the period of the Assyrian
conquest. These tablets are legal contracts from the mid-
seventh century BCE and bear Hebrew and numerous Assyrian
names.
Slightly later in date are several royal stamped jar
handles from these excavations, belonging possibly to the
reign of Josiah (about 640-609 BCE) when Gezer was a part
of the Kingdom of Judah.  Stratum V (late eighth-seventh
482
century BCE) the Solomonic gate was converted into a two-
chamber gate like that of Megiddo III. Shortly after, it
was destroyed probably during the Babylonian invasion of
587-586 BCE.
In fields II and VII, stratum V domestic levels were
found badly destroyed. In the casemate of the city wall in
field II, there was found a quantity of smashed pottery,
some of the sherds marked by firebrands, and a spill of
calcined limestone (Dever 1993:505).
LACHISH
Lachish is located in the Shephelah and was occupied,
with several interruptions, from the Chalcolithic period to
the Persian period. Its remains were uncovered at Tel
Lachish (in Arabic, Tell ed-Duweir), situated near the
border of the Shephelah, about 30 kilometers (18.5 miles)
southeast of Ashkelon. In 1878, C. R. Conder proposed Tell
el-Hesi as the site of Lachish, and this identification
remained unchallenged until W. F. Albright questioned it in
1929, proposing Tell ed-Duweir as its site. He based his
identification on Eusebius (120:20), who stated that
Lachish was a village in the seventh mile from
Eleutheropolis (Beth-Govin) to the Negev (Daroma). An
additional fact that contributed to his identification of
Lachish was the size of the mound, which is four times as
large as Tell el-Hesi. The excavations have given evidence
that Tell ed-Duweir is Lachish (Ussishkin 1993:897).
Canaanite royal city of Lachish is first mentioned in the
el-Amarna letters of the fourteenth century BCE (Amarna
letters Numbers 328, 329, 332). In the Bible, it is listed
in the account of the Israelite conquest among the five
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cities of the coalition that fought against Joshua at
Gibeon and was defeated by him (Joshua 10:5). After the
King of Lachish was put to death (Joshua 10:26, 32-33), it
was included in the territory of Judah (15:39). It was
listed among the cities fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chronicles
11:9). Amaziah, King of Judah, fled to Lachish from a
conspiracy against him in Jerusalem “but they sent to
Lachish after him, and slew him there” (2 Kings 14:19; 2
Chronicles 25:27). During Sennacherib’s expedition to
Palestine in 701 BCE, Lachish played an important role in
the defense of the country. The siege of the city and its
conquest are described in detail in parallel passages in
the Bible (2 Kings 18; 2 Chronicles 32; Isaiah 36) and in
Assyrian sources (please see reliefs from Sennacherib’s
palace under Inscriptions).
From 1932-1938 the Wellcome-Marston Expedition spent
an average of six months of the year at the site lead by J.
Starkey. This came to a tragic end with Starkey's murder in
1938. He was succeeded for the remaining months of the
season by L. Harding. Olga Tufnell and other members of the
expedition, with contributions from other experts, prepared
the publication of the excavation which was completed
twenty years later in 1958 (Ussishkin 1993:897).
Lachish is not mentioned in the Bible from the days of
Joshua to the time of Rehoboam. It is interesting that
during this period there was a lack of much building
activity on the mound between the twelfth and tenth
centuries BCE. The northwest corner of a Bronze Age palace
was embedded in the charred ash of its destruction. The
builders of palace A (level V) used this destruction level
for the foundation of an Iron Age building. This building
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had a 6-meter brick wall around it that was partially
cleared on the western edge of the mound and is attributed
to the time period of Asa. The wall was exposed in a
section north of the gateway and continued for a short
distance.  The extension of the citadel to the south for an
additional 46 meters (Palace B) may have been initiated by
Jehoshaphat during his recorded building activities in
Judah. After this time a strip was added along the east
wall of Palace B, forming the foundation of an enlarged
building or a separate porch (Palace C), which underwent
several phases of construction and repair. There was a
flight of steps leading up to it, and under these stones
two earlier stairways were partially preserved. Nothing
remained of the building or buildings that once stood on
the podiums (palaces A-C) except some patches of lime
floor, but quantities of stamped jar handles found on the
southern end suggest that a building had stood nearby in
the eighth or seventh century BCE (Ussishkin 1993:907).
South of the citadel, a large area was excavated
within the walls(levels III-II). The ruins were buried
under debris, which varied in depth from a few centimeters
to a meter-and-a-half, according to the slope of the
ground. Two groups of houses were found. The first stood
high on the south slope of the citadel, descending in
terraces to a point where erosion had destroyed even the
floors. Here also, erosion swept the higher ground almost
clear of buildings and brought an accumulation of debris
down toward the gate. This preserved the other houses near
the gate to a substantial height. Masses of broken jars,
some with stamped handles, were found in these rooms, which
were poorly built of stone and brick with mud or cobbled
floors, all deeply covered with charred ash.
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Biblical and Assyrian sources both show that Lachish
fell to Sennacherib about 700 BCE. There were no signs of
destruction in the buildings of level III and VI. The brick
wall, which was apparently built during the reign of Asa,
continued in use until the time of Hezekiah. The gate
towers, which may have stood for more than a century, were
then buried under their own collapsed superstructure, over
which other roadways passed. In the reconstruction after
700 BCE, a stone gateway replaced the underlying brick gate
towers and the space on each side of the road was left
clear. Not after later, further disaster came upon the
city. Burning covered the threshold of the level II gate,
and a charred heap just inside seems to represent the
remains of a wooden door. (Ussishkin 1993:907-908).
In a further stage of defensive preparation, the width
of the doorway was reduced. Remains between the inner and
outer gate built over the once free-standing bastion were
equally affected. The destruction of level III is
attributed to the Babylonian expeditions.  The second phase
of level II (containing the famous Lachish ostrica) is
dated to a time between the Assyrian and the Babylonian
expeditions. The pottery from level III becomes especially
significant because the other great cities fell to the
Assyrians two or three decades earlier. Only at Lachish is
there an excavated destruction level dating from the end of
the eighth century BCE. (Ussishkin 1993:909-910).
The water system at Lachish was investigated by
Starkey from 1935 to 1937.  The “Great Shaft” of this water
system remains one of the enigmas of this site (Tufnell
1953:158-63). It was hewn adjacent to the line of
fortifications at the southeastern corner of the
settlement. Starkey examined it by tunneling along its
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walls and found that it measured 22 m x 25 m and is about
25 m deep. Since no tunnel was found at the bottom, the
excavator assumed that its hewing was never completed
(Tufnell 1953:162). It can be assumed that the hewers
intended the shaft to reach down to the level of the water
table, 40 m to 50 m below the present surface.  This level
was known on the basis of the level of the ground water in
the well mentioned below.
The well uncovered at the northeastern corner of the
mound is one of the few examples of deep wells found in an
Israelite city (Ussishkin 1993:906-907). The sole
chronological datum concerning the well is the fact that it
is integrated within the fortification system of the Iron
II city. The “Great Shaft” was hewn, during the
construction of Stratum III in the days of Hezekiah, the
late eighth century BCE. It can be assumed that the large
shaft was abandoned after the destruction of Stratum III
(701 BCE).  The layers of stone discovered at the top of
the depression, which remained on the site of the shaft
after it had become filled with debris from the destruction
of the city, indicate a later, secondary use as an open
reservoir for rainwater in Stratum I of the Persian-
Hellenistic periods. (Ussishkin 1993:906-907).
 
MARESHAH (Marisa)
Mareshah (Marisa) is identified with Tell Sandakhanna,
located about 30 kilometers (18.5 miles) east-southeast of
Ashkelon. This identification is based on references in the
Bible and in Josephus where Marisa is mentioned in the
vicinity of towns in the eastern Shephelah.
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It is listed among the cities of Judah (Joshua 15:44)
and in the “genealogies” of the settlements (1 Chronicles
2:42) as belonging to the Calabites. During the reign of
Rehoboam, Mareshah was one of the fortified cities
defending the southwestern approaches of Judah. Zerah the
Ethiopian, who invaded the country in the time of Asa,
reached Mareshah (about 900 BCE), but was defeated in the
major battle fought in the Valley of Zephathah, located
north of Mareshah (2 Chronicles 14:8-9) (Avi-Yonah 1993:
948).
Tell Sandakhanna was partially excavated in 1900, by
F. J. Bliss and R. A. S. Macalister, for the British
Palestine Exploration Fund. The mound is about 152 meters
in diameter. At its summit (357 meters above sea level) was
found a stratified accumulation 3.6 to 6.1 meters thick.
The excavators identified three strata: two Hellenistic and
one Israelite.
They first excavated a network of squares (3 square
meters) until they discovered walls directly beneath the
surface. The Hellenistic city in its last phase was almost
square in plan (158 meters from east to west and 152 meters
from north to south) and covered an area of about 24
dunams. It was surrounded by a wall with square and
rectangular towers (Avi-Yonah 1993:948-949).
In an earlier phase, the city was surrounded by a
different wall which enclosed a slightly larger area of
the early phase of the Hellenistic city. Under the Greek
residences, at a depth of 3 meters was found a stratum from
the Israelite period. The finds from this stratum include
seventeen lamelech seals. Eleven were of the double winged
type and six of the four-winged type. These were from
various cities: Hebron, three; Mmst, three; Socoh, six;
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Zif, two; and three seals bearing illegible names (1993:
Avi-Yonah 950).
 
TELL BEIT MIRSIM, Debir or Kirjath-Sepher
The location and identification of the Debir which is
mentioned in the Bible has been a somewhat more complex
problem to solve than have the locations of many other
sites.
Beit Mirsim occupies about 3 hectares (about 7.5
acres) and is about 497 meters above sea level. The history
of occupation has proved to coincide with the biblical
narratives related to Debir. According to the biblical
text, Debir was a royal Canaanite city in the southwestern
hills or the southern Shephelah, on the edge of the Negev.
In 1932, soundings to bedrock were made in thirteen
places, distributed around the periphery of the site at
points where the native rock is not visible today. They
showed a thin occupation in the Early Bronze Age, followed
by a reoccupation not later than the tenth century BCE and
ending not later than the early sixth century BCE. This was
followed by a Roman and Byzantine settlement (Albright
1993:177).
Some scholars had a proposal that Debir was located
south of Hebron at a site known as Khirbet Tarramah, which
is near ‘Ain ed-Dilbeh. This was because in Joshua 15 and
Judges some have thought it was referring to a place in the
high hill country, south of Hebron.  When Tarramah (in
Aramaic, Tura Rama means High Hill) was excavated the
pottery was almost exclusively Hellenistic, Roman and
Byzantine. In the story of the capture of Debir by Othniel,
it is clear that Debir was not far from Hebron. The account
489
of the conquest of the towns of Judah by Joshua in 10:36
relates that Joshua went up from Eglon to Hebron, from
which he returned to Debir. This shows the location of the
latter to be south of the direct line of march from the
neighborhood of Tell el-Hesi to Hebron, since all the
definitely located towns of the sixth district of Judah, in
which Debir was situated, are much to the south of this
line.
Joshua 11:21 suggests a location for Debir between
Hebron and Anab, which was in remarkable agreement with the
actual location of Tell Beit Mirsim. The “gullot” (basin of
water) of Joshua 15:19 and Judges 1:15 are clearly located
in the valleys above and below the town. They correspond
precisely to the modern wells leading down into underground
basins fed by springs that are now subterranean.
Tell Beit Mirsim is located at the edge of the hill
country at a point where the hill country and the Shephelah
merge, and it is also definitely on the edge of the Negev
where Joshua 15:19 and Judges 1:15 place it. Now the
identification of Tell Beit Mirsim with Debir is very
strong. The finds also give strong validation that Tell
Beit Mirsim is Debir.
Debir is in the sixth district of Judah (Joshua 15:48-
50). The inclusion of Debir in the list of priestly towns
(Joshua 21:15, 1 Chronicles 6:58) proves that in the early
Monarchy it was an important place (Albright 1993:177-178).
Raphael Greenberg presented an update on the
excavations. The following are some of those comments and
evaluations.
Albright’s identification of the site with
biblical Debir (Jos. 15:15-17) has been called into
question, most convincingly by M. Kochavi, who
identified Debir with Khirbet Rabud.  The Late Bronze
490
to Early Iron Age transition at Tell Beit Mirsim, I
proposed viewing the strataC-B sequence as that of an
indigenous Canaanite settlement in gradual decline.
The pottery in the silos, which characterizes phases
B1 and B2, continues Canaanite traditions, with a
small amount of Philistine ware, probably imported
from the coast, appearing in B2.  The establishment
of an Israelite presence at Tell Beit Mirsim is to be
associated with the construction of the B3
fortifications under the United Monarchy.  Albright
attributed the destruction of the Israelite city
(stratum A2) to the Babylonians, primarily based on
the seal attributed to a servant of Jehiachin.
However, ceramic and epigraphic studies by Y.
Aharoni, O. Zimhoni, and D. Ussishkin established
that the destruction should be attributed to the
Assyrian campaign of 701 BCE.  There is slight
ceramic and stratigraphic evidence for a partial
reoccupation of the site in the seventh or early
sixth century BCE(Greenberg 1993: 180).
After Beit Mirsim was identified in 1924, M. G. Kyle,
President of Xenia Theological Seminary, proposed a joint
excavation by his institution and the American Schools of
Oriental Research in Jerusalem. Four sessions were
conducted from 1926 through 1932. The general coordinator
and adviser was C. S. Fisher.
Tell Beit Mirsim was first occupied about the twenty-
third century BCE, during the Early Bronze Age III-B
period. Occupation levels were found and dated to all
stages of the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze periods. The
Iron Age period was identified in stratum A-1. The houses
were solidly built of stone with quite massive stone
pillars supporting the second floor and roof. A series of
successive reconstructions showed that there had been at
least four phases of construction between the ninth century
and the early sixth BCE. The west tower of the city was
dated to the ninth century BCE, since the foundation of the
west tower straddled the tenth-century BCE wall. The east
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gate of the city is dated to the seventh century BCE. The
date of the final destruction of Tell Beit Mirsim is fixed
by the find of two jar-handle stamps with the impression of
the seal of Eliakim, steward “na'ar” of Jehoiachin
“Yaukin”, just as in the ration lists of Nebuchadnezzar
from about 592 BCE. An identical stamp was found by E.
Grant at Beth-Shemesh and a fourth was discovered by Y.
Aharoni at Ramat Rahel in 1962 ( Albright  1993:180).
NORTHERN NEGEV 5.3.3
ARAD  (Tel’ Arad)
Arad, an important city in the Negev in the Canaanite
and Israelite periods, has been identified by most scholars
with Tel’ Arad, situated about 30 km (18 ½ miles) east-
northeast of Beersheba. It is mentioned in the Bible as a
fortified Canaanite city in the eastern Negev.  The king of
Arad, which dwelt in the South, prevented the Israelites
from penetrating directly from the Negev into the Judean
Mountains (Numbers 21:1, 33:40). Arad appears in the list
of the cities of southern Judah (Joshua 15:21).  In Pharaoh
Shishack’s list (see Inscription reference, chapter 4.5) of
the cities drawn up after his campaign in the fifth year of
Rehoboam's reign, the following mention is made.  "Hgrm ‘rd
rbt ‘rd n-bt Yrhm” (Shishack’s inscription section numbers
107-12). The translation of that is, “The hagrim [“the
citadels”] of greater Arad and of the house of Jeruham
(Jerahmeel).”(Aharoni 1993a:75).
     The mound, which retained its ancient name (Tell’ Arad
in Arabic), dominates the plains of the eastern Negev. The
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small mound (upper citadel) with its deep stratification
rises prominently above the lower city and an extensive
area of low hills.  Because the site lacks a spring or
well, the water supply depends entirely upon the storage of
rainwater in cisterns. The site stands on a hill of Eocenic
rock that contrasts strongly with the white Senonian rock
characteristic of the area. Since the Eocenic rock is
impervious to water, it was possible to dig cisterns
capable of retaining water. The site was therefore well
suited for a settlement in antiquity.
 The excavations at Arad were carried out in 1962-71.
The directors included Y. Aharoni, R. Amiran, and M.
Kochavi.
  This fortified city was built on 22 acres and lies
on the moderate slope-shaped depression eroded into the
sides of a chalky hill.
The early occupations of Arad dates back to the
Chalcolithic period (stratum V) and Early Bronze which
produced a large amount of material finds.  This early site
was abandoned about 2650 BCE (Aharoni 1993a:82). In the
Iron Age, the clan of Hobah, the Kenite, Moses’ father-in-
law, settled in the Negev of Arad.  The clan built a cult
place, around which the settlement developed in the course
of time.   A new settlement was established on the high
mound on the southeastern ridge surrounding the ancient
city. There were twelve strata uncovered. The Iron Age
included:
Stratum   Period     Dates (BCE)          Buildings
XII       Iron I     12th - 11th cent.      Settlement
XI        Iron II     Late 10th cent.     1 Citadel
X         Iron IIB    9th cent.            1 Citadel
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IX, VII    Iron IIC    8th — 7th cent.      4 Citadels
& VI
 The six Israelite citadels are the largest and
strongest structures on the site.  The earliest ones
measured about 50 by 55 m; the later ones were smaller. The
earliest fortress (stratum XI) was surrounded by a casemate
wall with projecting towers at the corners and two towers
on each side.  The entrance was at the northeastern corner.
This citadel was destroyed in Shishak’s campaign in 925
BCE.  The stratum X fortress, ninth century BCE, was
surrounded by a 4 m thick solid wall, with small insets at
intervals of 9 to 10 m.  Its entrance was in the middle of
the eastern side.  The wall continued in use in strata IX
to VII.  In stratum VII, only part of the thick wall was
reused and parallel inner walls were added to reinforce it.
The last Israelite fortress (stratum VI) was also encircled
by a casemate wall with projecting towers, similar to the
citadels at Kadesh-Barnea and Horvat Uza.  In a number of
stratum VI walls, dressed stones were found that were
trimmed with a toothed adze, while the center was left
rough and unworked.  These stones appear to have come from
walls of earlier strata.
The large quantities of vessels and other artifacts
found on the floors of strata X and IX indicate the
economic prosperity of the periods. There were numerous
perfume bottles in stratum IX which showed a well-developed
perfume industry.  The destruction of this level is
attributed to an Edomite raid in the campaign of Rezin,
king of Aram, and Pekah, king of Israel, against Judah (734
BCE, 2 Kings 16:5; 2 Chr. 28:5)(Aharoni 1993a:82).
494
The stratum VIII (Iron II-C) destruction was related
to Sennacherib’s campaign in 701 BCE.  Some 90 percent of
the pottery in this stratum resembled that which was found
at Lachish (stratum III) and Beersheba (stratum II).
Stratum VI was destroyed around 587-586 BCE (Aharoni 1993a:
83).
In strata XI (Iron IIA) and IX (Iron IIC), the citadel
area contained storerooms and industrial installations, as
well as residential quarters.  A hoard of silver ingots and
small pieces of jewelry was found in a small jar in the
industrial area of stratum XI.  This is the same area where
the perfume industry was found (stratum IX of Iron II-C).
A sanctuary was found in the northwest corner of the
citadel.  Construction was determined to be during the Iron
II-A period (stratum XI).  Its beginnings can be traced to
the bamah and altar erected here in stratum XII.  The
sanctuary consists of three successive rooms: the hall (a
broad room); the sanctuary, containing a small niche facing
west; and the holy of holies.  The temple is oriented east-
west, as was the Solomonic Temple in Jerusalem.  The walls
of the temple and the holy of holies were covered with
thick plaster, some of which was in very good condition.
The stele was one meter high.  Its sides were smoothed and
painted red.  Two other stones, found built into the walls
of the holy of holies, were no longer used as massebot in
the area’s last stage.
  Standing on the last step were two stone incense
altars (0.4-0.51 m high). Burned organic matter was found
in their shallow, concave tops, probably the remains of
incense of vegetable origin.  In the courtyard was a 5 by 5
cubit altar (2.5 by 2.5 m), built of bricks and unhewn
field stones.  Its top was a plastered surface with a
495
channel to drain the blood of the sacrifices.  To the left
of the stratum X altar, a built cell with a door led to the
courtyard.  In this cell was a clay incense stand with
lotus-leaf decoration.  At the foot of the altar two small,
incised flat bowls were found.  On one was the Hebrew
letters translated as holy (“qds”) and on the other a
ritual symbol similar to those found on Herodian stone
vessels from Second Temple period in Jerusalem. In its size
and construction the Arad altar resembles the altar in the
sanctuary described in Deut. 27:5 (Aharoni1993a:83). See
Section 4.6.3.3, Arad and Cultic Centers, of this
dissertation.
This temple at Arad was the first Israelite temple
discovered in an archeological excavation in Israel
(Aharoni 1993a:83). It remained in use until the time of
Hezekiah’s religious reform (stratum VII).
There were one hundred and seven Hebrew ostraca
written in ink found at Arad.  Some of the ostrica from the
temple had names of priestly families, Pashhur and
Meremoth, mentioned in the Bible (Jer.20:1; Ezra 8:33).
Five seals of the commanders of the citadel were found. A
large proportion of the epigraphic material is dated to
about 600 BCE.  One letter referred to the “the House of
YHWH.”  See Section 4.5.7.9., Arad Ostracon 18, in this
dissertation.
    The pottery from the Israelite settlement through
each level showed that vessels maintained the same forms
for centuries, with little changes.  A chronology of
pottery was constructed.  The earliest strata had red-brown
slip and hand burnishing on bowls and jugs. At the
beginning of the period most rims were straight or
thickened some with bar handles and some with long sides.
496
As the years went by, the bowls changed from folded rims in
stratum X to bowls with depressions beneath the rims in
stratum VII.  These were all typical of Judah and the Negev
in the ninth to sixth centuries.  Cooking pots also showed
gradual changes in shape.  In the early periods, they were
shallow with profiled or carinated rims, then they changed
to single-handled jug-pots (Aharoni 1993a:84-85).
UZA   Horvat Uza  (Khirbet Ghazzeh)
This is a Judean fortress, just south of Arad. Horvat
Uza (Khirbet Ghazzeh) is situated at the eastern end of the
Arad Valley, some 8 km (5 miles) southeast of Tel Arad.  It
overlooks Nahal Zina and controls the ancient road liking
this region to Edom and the Arabah.
The site consists of a fortress with towers, whose
beginnings date to the Iron Age.  Near it, at the top of
the site, a small Iron Age settlement was found. Upon
studying the pottery, Aharoni, identified the Iron Age
levels. The primary period was the eighth and seventh
centuries BCE. A small quantity of pottery was from the
tenth and ninth centuries BCE.  According to A. Lemaire,
this was the site of biblical Kinah (Josh. 15:22).  Based
on the finding of the excavations it seems that this is a
favorable identification.  Excavations were carried out
between  1982-88. These were primarily done by a joint
expedition from the Institute of Archaeology at Tel Aviv
University and Baylor University.
The fortress dated to the seventh century BCE.  It was
51 m by 42 m and had a wall around it (1.5 m thick) with
ten square outer towers; four at the corners of the
fortress; two in the entrance of the southern wall; one in
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the middle of the eastern wall; two flanking the gate in
the northern wall of the fortress; and one in the western
wall.  The gateway is 3.7 m wide and 6.5 m long; its left
wing consists of two chambers; the first is 1.5 m long and
the second is 3 m long.  In the floor of the gateway was a
drainage channel covered with stone slabs.  The excavated
parts of the fortress’s courtyard revealed rooms abutting
the wall (casemates) and a complex of buildings and narrow
streets.  A platform, perhaps a bamah (high place) was
found near the gate.
Some of the rooms, particularly in the gate courtyard,
contained large accumulations of charred wooden beams and
other indications of a violent fire. Two cisterns were
found outside the fortress.  Pottery characteristic of the
Negev at the end of the First Temple period was found both
in the fortress and in the settlement.  There were a
variety of bowls, including some fine-quality red-slipped
and burnished ware, testifying to a sophisticated
technique.  Among the finds were twenty-nine ostraca found
in the first chamber of the gate. The ostraca were
inscribed in Hebrew, but one was in Edomite.  The
translations gave reference to military direction, name
lists and distribution of supplies (Itzhaz 1993:1495-1497).
TEL IRA (KHIRBET GHARA)
Tel Ira is located in the Beersheba Valley.  The site
covers an area of 6 acres.  It is surrounded by an Iron Age
solid stone wall, whose entire length has been exposed (1.6
-1.8 m thick). It was built of local flint and hewn
limestone set in segments.  Its biblical identification has
remained unclear, although it has been thought to be
498
equivalent with Jebabzeel in Neh. 11:25.  Excavations were
conducted at Tel ‘Ira from 1979 to 1987 primarily from Tel
Aviv University under the direction of M. Kochavie.
Stratigraphic sequence of the Iron Age:
Stratum     Period (BCE)                    Finds
VIII        Iron II (10th-9th cent.)      Pottery, tomb
VII & V     Iron II (8-7th cent.)        Fortified city
VIII       Iron Age II               Pottery sherds
The Pottery sherds from stratum VIII were found in various
parts of the site.  One Tomb contained intact vessels.
Stratum VII was noted for the fortified city which was
found.  In its eastern part, the city gate and some public
buildings were uncovered; private houses were found in the
other areas.  The city gate in the east wall consists of
six chambers and two towers (Building A).  The northern
wing and parts of the passageway have been cleared.  Its
total length is 18 m, the width of one wing is 6.5 m. and
the thickness of the wall is 1.6 m.  Within the passageway,
remains of a drainage channel were found.
The structures were found in areas labeled A, B, C,
and E.  In area B, four rooms and a courtyard were found
and destruction by fire was evident. A building in area C
was a storehouse and it included two rooms. Two floors were
found in area E’s casemate rooms (building D) and in the
casemate area C’s offset wall.
   On the necropolis about twenty-five tombs were
discovered.  The skeletal remains were uncovered, but the
material finds were limited due to apparent looting.
Strata VII and VI revealed a number of material finds.
There was Israelite pottery of the type common in Judah,
Edom, and bowls imitating Assyrian style.  There were
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shekel weights and a single inscribed Hebrew “pym” weight.
The epigraphic material includes an ostracon inscribed with
Hebrew which gave a list of individuals who lived in one of
the city’s houses.  Two jar fragments contained personal
names.  Metal objects included a plow point, a sickle and
arrowheads.  The tombs of the period did produced some
silver earrings and bronze bracelets (Beit-Arieh 1993a:643-
646).
TEL BEERSHEBA
 
Tel Beersheba (Tell es-Saba') is located east of the
modern city of Beersheba, on the road to the Bedouin
settlement known as Tel Shelva. The mound covers an area of
about 2.5 acres.
 Beersheba is known in the Bible as the chief city of
the Negev and as a sacred site. It is geographically the
southern boundary of the Land of Israel, “from Dan to
Beersheba” (Judges 20:1, 1 Kings 4:25.) In Genesis 21, 26,
28, and 46, it is mentioned as the holy place where God
appeared. It was assigned to the tribe of Simeon (Joshua
19:2, 1 Chronicles 4:28) and appears among the cities of
the Negev of Judah (Joshua 15:28).  Samuels’s sons judged
the people at Beersheba (1 Samuel 8:2), and Elijah passed
it on his way to Mount Horeb (1 Kings 19:3). In the days of
Amos a temple was there which was condemned by the prophet
(Amos 5:5 and 8:14). Josiah brought priest to Jerusalem
“from Geba to Beersheba” (2 Kings 23:8). The final mention
of the city is when the “Daughters of Judah” returned from
Babylon, the province then spreading "from Beersheba unto
the Valley of Hinnom" (Nehemiah 11:27,30).
 
500
The Archaeological Institute of the Tel Aviv
University, under the direction of Y. Aharoni started
excavation on the mound in 1969. In 1972 the site went into
its fourth season. It was during this time that the main
quarters of the last Israelite city were cleared.
 The entire mound was settled only in the Israelite
period, and its strong fortifications produced its
distinctive form. Sherds of the twelfth to eleventh
centuries BCE, found in the deepest layer (stratum VI),
indicated that the mound was settled in the period of the
Judges, although it was apparently unwalled at that time
(Herzog 1993:167-168).
Stratigraphical Sequence at Tel Beersheba Iron Age
Stratum   Period     Century BCE          Significance
 I       Iron II      Early 7th          Reconstruction
 II      Iron II      Late 8th           Administrative
                                        City (rebuilt)
 III     Iron II      9th-8th            Administrative
                                       (casemate wall)
 IV      Iron II      Late 10th-9th      Administrative
                                        City (rebuilt)
 V       Iron II      Mid-10th           Admin. City
                                        (solid wall)
 VI      Iron I/IIA   Early 10th         Temporary camp
 VII     Iron I       Late 11th -         Enclosed
                      Early 10th          settlement
 VII     Iron I       Second half of     Unfortified
                      11th                 settlement
 IX      Iron I       12th or 11th        Pits and huts
 
Stratum V (10th cent. BCE) uncovered a solid wall 4
meters thick with insets and offsets. There was a ramp
501
covered with a glacis made of layers of brick fragments and
ashes, to a depth of almost 2 meters. This fortification
was also used in the following stratum (IV), which was
destroyed at the beginning of the ninth century BCE.
Stratum III, ninth century BCE, produced a second
wall, this was casemate in type and was built in part over
the foundations of the solid wall from the earlier period.
Its dimensions are standard ones (circa 1.6 meters for the
external wall and circa 1.1 meters for the internal wall).
Over the older glacis a new one was laid down, composed of
layers of earth and alluvium. This new glacis was founded
on heavy limestone revetments joined by braces to the
earlier layers. The upper part, which was plastered, met
the city wall horizontally.  The casemate wall continued to
be used throughout stratum II, whose destruction is dated
at the end of the eighth century BCE.  After its ruin, a
final attempt was made to reconstruct the fortifications. A
retaining wall consisting of layers of pebbles and earth
was erected inside the casemate wall (Herzog 1993:170-171).
The city gate was discovered at the southern edge of
the mound. Two gates were uncovered, on top of the other,
corresponding to the two city walls. The early one,
measuring circa 21 by 21 meters and contemporary with the
solid wall (strata V - IV), is wide and massive. It has two
guardrooms and a tower. Its foundations are 5 to 6 meters
thick.  Between the tower and the threshold of the gate was
a square in which were found remains of a platform with a
carefully constructed incense altar next to it. A similar
cultic platform was also found in the square of the gate at
Tel Dan (2 Kings 23:8).  The area of the square measured 12
by 20 meters and was surrounded by several large rooms used
by people passing by. From the square, a peripheral road
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circled inside of the city parallel to the wall. Radial
streets cut through the center of the city. Several
dwelling quarters were excavated along the peripheral road.
The houses are tangential to the casemate wall and many
have the remains of stairs indicate that they had second
stories. The houses showed evidence of repair. The
entrances to the chambers of the wall were adapted to
conform to the changes made in the houses.
A large building to the left of the gate, built partly
of ashlars, apparently served as the residence of the local
governor. Behind it was a large building of the four-room
type, which contained a rich group of cult objects, mostly
Egyptian. Among them was a votive cylinder seal with an
Akkadian inscription, which was an offering by a man called
Rimtuilani, son of Adad-idri (Hadad-ezer). To the right of
the gate were three adjoining storehouses, of uniform plan.
Each comprised three long halls separated by two rows of
pillars. The storehouses contained an abundance of pottery
of various types, including cooking pots, bowls, and other
vessels, besides storage jars (Herzog 1993:171).
In addition to continuous and uniform streets, there
were drainage channels that were cut beneath the street
pavements.  These channels conducted the rain water
gathered from the rooftops and courtyards to other
subterranean stone channels.  The stone channels directed
the water to the main channel, which passed beneath the
gateway and drained the water into a well which was
discovered outside the city gate which dates to Iron I.
The latest Israelite city (stratum II) was destroyed
by a fire. In the ruins there was an abundance of pottery
and other objects. They date from about the end of the
eighth century BCE. This gives evidence to the fact that
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the city of Beersheba was sacked during Sennacherib’s
campaign in 701 BCE.  The settlement was not reestablished.
There was also pillared buildings and a large horned altar
(1.6 m by 1.6 m).  Y. Aharoni believed this altar attested
to the presence of a temple in the city. In his opinion,
the temple was dismantled as a result of the cultic reform
carried out by Hezekiah, king of Judah, as was seen in the
discontinued use of the horned altar in the Arad fortress.
Yadin suggested that the altar was the remnant of a high
place, or bamah, which he believed had stood at the city
gate (Herzog 1993:171).
There were two large structures uncovered in stratum
II (early 7th cent. BCE) which were believed to be used by
the commanders of the city.  Building 416 was located by
the city gate and was named the Governor’s Palace.  It
contained three large reception halls whose entrances were
built of ashlars, two dwelling units and a domestic unit
(storehouse and kitchen).  The other structure was named,
Cellar House, because of the two rooms dug beneath its
floor (Herzog 1993:171).
In addition to the public buildings, Beersheba had
approximately 75 dwellings.  Most of them were the four-
room type, with a front entrance, an inner courtyard, a
work and storage room adjacent to the courtyard, a
storeroom, and a dwelling chamber.  Based on the number of
dwelling units, the population of Beersheba was estimated
at four hundred. This number seems low in view of the
resources and well-planned structures of the city.  The
reason given for this is the fact that Beersheba was the
center of the royal administration during the period of the
monarchy and continued to be an administrative city through
the 7th century BCE.  Common people usually lived in
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villages and farms close by, but not in the city (Herzog
1993:172).
Among the special finds are a great number of cult
objects. These include Astarte figurines, zoomorphic
vessels, several small stone incense altars (one decorated,
of the Persian period), and a pottery bowl on which the
word “qds” ("holy") was scratched in Hebrew. In one of the
gate rooms a large store jar was found displaying the royal
seal “lamelekh Zif” with the four-winged scarab (Herzog 1993:
172-173).
TEL MASOS (Hormah) (Khirbet El-Meshash)
 Hormah was a town in the Negev, formerly Canaanite
Zephath (destroyed by Judahites and Simeonites, Judges
1:17); its king is listed as defeated by Joshua (Joshua
12:14). In the war with Arad, the place was taken by the
Israelites and given the name Hormah, meaning “devoted,”
because it was devoted to destruction (Numbers 21: 1-3). In
the list of kings conquered by Joshua, it appears with Arad
(Josh. 12:14). Hormah was originally given to Judah
(15:30), but shortly after was allotted to Simeon (19:4)
because the portion of the tribe of Judah was too large for
them. Judges 1:17 relates that it was Judah and Simeon who
subdued Zephath and renamed it Hormah.
David sent part of the spoil of Ziklag to Hormah, as
one of the cities of Judah (1 Sam. 30:26-30), but Hormah
was reckoned among the cities of Simeon “until the reign of
David” (1 Chron. 4:30-31). There have been several
speculations regarding the identification of Hormah. One
was from Albright who proposed Hormah to be Tell es-
Sheri'ah (Tel Sera), but a more southerly location is
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indicated in reading Numbers 14:45 and Deut. 1:44. Tell
esh-Sheri'a is situated in the northwestern Negev midway
between Gaza and Beersheba and some 20 kilometers (12.5
miles) northwest of Beersheba.
Aharoni did more extensive excavations at a Tel named,
Masos, located 12 km. (7 miles) west of Beersheba and found
that its location and material finds were more likely to be
the site for Hormah (Kempinski 1993:986).
Until 1964, Tel Masos (Khirbet El-Meshash), was known
only as a small mound of about 1.25 acres containing the
remnants of a Roman-Byzantine fort and Iron Age II-C
remains. In that year, Y. Aharoni, during a survey of the
area, discovered a Middle Bronze Age II earthen rampart
west of the main well (Bir el-Meshash, and the remains of a
huge Iron Age I settlement (about 12 acres) located 200
meters east of the Roman-Byzantine fort. Aharoni reviewed
these discoveries and the results of the excavations in the
Beersheba Valley, at Arad, Malhata, and Beersheba. He
proposed to identify Tel Masos with biblical Hormah (Joshua
15: 30), a city or district already known at the end of the
Egyptian Middle Kingdom as “h’jm” in the Execration Text or
“h’mj” (Wadi Meghara in Sinai). The biblical references
conform well to the ceramic evidence at the site. The
survey showed that the range of pottery spanned the entire
Iron Age I, from the period of the Israelite settlement
when Hormah is first mentioned (about the mid-thirteenth
century BCE) to the early part of David's reign at Ziklag,
when he sent the booty of the Amalekites to the city (1
Samuel 30:30).
From 1972 to 1975, three seasons of excavations were
carried out at the site by a joint Israeli-German
expedition.
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Remains from the Chalcolithic period, Middle Bronze
Age, Iron Age I, II-C, and Byzantine period were uncovered.
Iron Age I. Five areas (A, B, C, F, and H) were
examined on the main site. In all the areas, three strata
of the Iron Age I were revealed.
Stratum 3 was found mainly in areas A and C, this
stratum represents the first settlement on the site at the
end of the thirteenth century BCE. The architecture is very
simple, with houses consisting of a broad room opening onto
a rectangular courtyard. The pottery dates to the early
phase of the Iron Age I (Kempinski 1993:986).
Stratum 2 contained well-constructed houses of the
four-room type which were excavated in areas A, B, and F.
Public buildings were in areas A and C, and a cult building
was in area H. Stratum 2 was destroyed by an earthquake, as
was indicated by some of the buildings in area A.
Philistine, Phoenician Bichrome and “Midianite” pottery
date this stratum from the mid-twelfth to the middle of the
eleventh century BCE (Kempinski 1993:987).
     Stratum 1 showed a decline of the settlement. Only a
few of the buildings destroyed in stratum 2 were rebuilt. A
new fortress, smaller than that of stratum 2, was built in
area C. The pottery was of the late eleventh or early tenth
century BCE.
The Iron Age II-C remains of Tel Masos were located
west of the Iron Age I settlement. Included was the finding
of a small fortress that had been erected during the
seventh century BCE and destroyed at the beginning of the
sixth century BCE.
As one of the largest sites in the northern Negev, Tel
Masos was of major importance in the Middle Bronze Age.
During the Israelite settlement of the Negev, Masos was the
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largest center in the entire northern Negev area, a fact
that clearly indicates its importance at that period. The
prosperity of settlement of stratum 2 at the time of
Philistine rule in Palestine suggests that it was
incorporated into the Philistine commercial and political
system. The archaeological data supports the fact that
Masos was biblical Hormah (Kempinski 1993:987-988). Is
TEL MALHATA
Tel Malhata (Tell el-Milh) is in the Negev desert,
near the juncture of Nahal Malhata and Nahal Beersheba.
The level of groundwater of the area is high. This
contributed to a good water supply and the digging of many
wells at this site.
Excavations have been carried out in 1967 and 1971 by
M. Kochavi.  Early occupational levels were Chalcothithic,
Early Bronze and Middle Bronze (Kochavi 1993b:934).
The walled city reached its peak of development during
the Iron Age.  A 5 m high rampart occupied the lower part
of the mound, rising in level to the higher part.  The
flattened area was surrounded by a wall (4.5 m thick)
founded on the new rampart on the lower part of the mound.
The rampart was faced with stones.  Buildings included a
public building in section Z and private dwellings in
section W.   A violent conflagration was evident by the
destruction level found in areas dating to the tenth
century BCE. An immediate occupation phase, over-lying the
ruins, was identified in the area of the houses in section
W, followed by a new wall (3.5 m thick) built on the
foundations of the earlier one and an earthen rampart
reinforced the wall from the outside.  In section Z
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(located on the lower part of the mound), an Iron Age
storehouse (7 by 15 m) was found.  It consisted of three
long rooms separated by rows of stone pillars.  The
storehouse was in use through three levels, from the ninth
to the sixth centuries BCE.  In the earliest level, the
pillars were built of rounded stone drums.  Through all
three levels, the middle hall had a beaten earth floor,
while the halls flanking it were paved with stone.  Only
the last level was destroyed by fire (Kochavi 1993b:935-
936).
The material finds were primarily from the destruction
level of the sixth century BCE, although some pottery from
the earlier period was found (Kochavi 1993b:936).
AROER (In Moab)
 Aroer is found in the following scriptures: Joshua
12:2; 13:9, 16; Deuteronomy 2:36; 3:12, 4:48; 2 Kings
10:33; and Jeremiah 48:19. The Mesha Stone (line 26) cited
Aroer as being situated on the bank of the Arnon River.
The actual location of Aroer is at Khirbet' Ara’ir,
which is located 4 kilometers (2 ½ miles) east of the
Madeba-Karak highway on the northern slope of the Wadi
Mojib (the biblical Arnon).
Archaeological excavations clearly show that Aroer was
never a town or settlement. It was a strategically
positioned fortress guarding the King’s Highway, which
crossed the Arnon (Jeremiah 48:19). Little is known of
Aroer’s history. According to the Bible, it was first
occupied after the Israelite conquest by the Tribe of
Reuben, which settled on the plain north of the Arnon (1
Chronicles 5:8). Aroer remained in the possession of the
Israelites throughout the period of the Judges (Judges
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11:26) and the United Monarchy. It marked the southern
boundary of the Israelite territories in Transjordan. In
the wake of the successful campaigns of King Mesha (850
BCE), Aroer, which was then in existence, was annexed to
the Kingdom of Moab. As is related in the Mesha Stone (line
26), the king made the highway in the Arnon and “built
Aroer.”
 A short time afterward, in the second half of the
ninth century BCE, the king of Damascus conquered the
Israelite territories in Transjordan, which extended
between the rivers Arnon and Yarmuk (2 Kings 10:32-33).
Aroer remained in Syrian possession until the fall of
Damascus during the Assyrian expansion (732 BCE). According
to Josephus (Antiquities X, 181), the destruction of the
Aroer fortress took place in the course of Nebuchadnezzar’s
campaign against Moab (582 BCE). From that time on, Aroer
was rebuilt only partially and transitorily.
Members of the Spanish Center, Casa de Santiago, in
Jerusalem, under the direction of E. Olavarri, carried out
excavations on the site of Aroer during three seasons
(1964, 1965 and 1966). They uncovered six archaeological
levels corresponding to as many periods of occupation. This
included Middle Bronze Age I into the Iron Age.
 Iron Age (level V) houses were discovered in trench
D, loci 206 and 208. According to Goicoechea, Locus 204
contained the walls of an Israelite fortress that was
conquered by King Mesha of Moab. The new fortress (level
IV), which was built by this king over the earlier one,
occupies an area of 50 square meters. It is constructed of
very solid masonry and includes three parallel walls: an
exterior one, 2 meters in width; an interior one, which
served as a buttress in the central area of the fortress;
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and an intermediate wall, 1.5 meters thick.  The two inner
passages running between them were filled with debris of
former buildings, thus forming a defensive structure of
great strength. The southeast and southwest sides of the
fortress were built upon the steep cliffs of the Arnon,
which served as a natural glacis. An additional double
defense wall was put up on the northwest side, which faces
the plain and is consequently more vulnerable. As in Dibon,
King Mesha built a reservoir in Aroer to store rainwater in
an artificial basin in front of the northwest wall of the
fortress.
From the seventh to the third centuries BCE, Aroer
experienced a further period of abandonment ((Goicoechea,
1993:90-92).
AROER (In Judea)
Aroer of Judea is located in the Negev desert,
approximately 14 miles southeast of Beersheba. In the
Bible, it is mentioned in Joshua 15:22.
Excavations were started in 1975, by the Nelson Glueck
School of Biblical Archaeology at Hebrew Union College in
Jerusalem. Other campaigns were carried on from 1976-82.
The Iron Age was distinguished in three strata.
Stratum I revealed an offset-inset wall (135 m long) which
was plastered. There was a stone-faced earthen rampart
built against it.  Sections of the wall were also uncovered
on the north and west sides.  In this first phase,
buildings were uncovered mainly along the wall and in the
center of the mound.  The pottery included high-necked
jars, pithos, bowls, kraters which were identified to Iron
Age II.  No gap in occupation can be distinguished at
Aroer.  The next strata, III, produced houses and a silo.
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The pottery finds were like stratum IV.  Other things which
were found included an Astarte figurine and a bone plaque
with four columns that had a Proto-Aeolic capital at the
top which was thought to be a game board. Pottery and seals
were of Edomite origin.
Stratum II was the last of the Iron Age and dated to
the seventh and sixth centuries BCE.  Considerable pottery,
figurines, and weights were found (Biran 1993:92).
HORVAT RADUM
Horvat Radum is about 6 miles southwest of Arad.
Excavations were carried out at the site by Beit-Ariech and
B. Cresson, on behalf of the Institute of Archaeology at
Tel Aviv University and Baylor University.
The excavation of the Iron Age II revealed a thick
wall (2 m), a gateway (2.5 by 5.5 m), and a fort (21 by 25
m).   There were also rectangular rooms against the walls
of the fort and benches near the gateway. In the center of
the courtyard was the base of what appeared to be a tower.
Two cisterns were outside the fort. The material finds from
Iron Age II, included a few sherds of pottery and a cooking
pot which was Edomite in type.  Five Hebrew ostracon were
in various places in the fort (Beit-Arieh 1993b: 1254-
1255).
5.3.4  CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN NEGEV
KADESH-BARNEA (Tell el–Qudeirat)
Kadesh-Barnea is located in the northern Sinai Desert.
C.L. Woolley and T.E. Lawrence did a survey of the area in
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1914 and identified it with Tell el–Qudeirat.  Excavations
were carried on there in 1956 and 1976 to 1979 primarily
through Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the Ben-Gurion
University of the Negev. Directors included M. Dothan and
R. Cohen.  These excavations resulted in the uncovering of
three successive fortresses built in the tenth century BCE.
It also was apparent that a settlement was there between
the fifth and fourth centuries BCE (Cohen 1993:841).
The Lower Fortress was found in the southeastern part
of the mound and dated to the tenth century BCE.  Part of a
casemate room was later uncovered in this area.  A rich
assemblage of pottery vessels was found in the layer of ash
that covered the floors of the early fortress’s casemate
rooms.  There were wheel-made vessels typical of vessels
from this time period.  Also found were two Eyes of Horus,
an amulet, and a fragment of a faience figurine.
The Middle Fortress, dated to the eighth century BCE
was rectangular (40 m by 60 m), with a 4 m wide wall
preserved to a height of 1.8 m and eight protruding towers.
An earthen rampart resting on a 2.5 m high revetment wall
surrounded it. The revetment wall was excavated along the
eastern side of the fortress, along with segments on the
north and south.  Only small parts of the wall were exposed
on the west.  Portions of a fosse were found along three
sides of the fortress.  To the south of the two building
units were a plastered channel and a cistern built of large
stones with a plastered bottom. Three settlement phases
were determined in the structures inside the middle
fortress.  A  street (3.5 m wide) divided the fortress into
two blocks of buildings.  Five buildings were found in the
northern sections. In the northwestern corner, two adjacent
units (7 m by 10 m) were excavated.   The units showed
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traces of fire.  The pottery assemblage included Negbite
(distinctive Negev style) and Israelite ware.  Many animal
bones were also found (Cohen 1993:844).
A rectangular room (3.8 m by 5.5 m) was uncovered
inside the fortress, to the east of the cistern.  Its walls
are preserved to a height of 2.8 m and its floor is paved
with large stones. It was probably used as a silo.  Near
this was a round silo.  Four granaries were found outside
the fortress’s north wall. The largest was about 1.8 m in
diameter. A cistern was found near the fortress.  A small
room (3 m by 4 m) was found to the west of the granaries
adjacent to the wall of the fortress.  On the floor was a
clay oven (tabun) with an intact Negbite cooking pot inside
it.  On the floors of the rooms, there were a number of
wheel-made vessels typical of the eighth and seventh
centuries BCE.  Two ostracon with Hebrew inscriptions were
discovered (Cohen 1993:846).
The third fortress established at Kadesh-Barnea was
probably built during the reign of King Josiah.  It was
destroyed in a violent conflagration dated to about 586
BCE.  An unfortified settlement from the postexilic period
was also found (Cohen 1993:847).
KUNTILLET ‘AJRUD (Horvat Teman)
Horvat Teman (Kuntillet ‘Ajrud) is a small, single-
period Iron Age site from the early eighth century BCE. The
Arabic name Kuntillet Ajrud means “Solitary Hill of Well.”
The site is located in northern Sinai, approximately 50 km
(31 miles) south of Kadesh-Barnea and about 10 km (6.2
miles) west of Darb el-Ghazza. It is near the road that
runs from Quseima and Kadesh-Barnea to Elath and southern
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Sinai. Because of the wells, an important crossroad existed
near the site.
Excavations were conducted at the site in three total
sessions in 1975-1976.  The site contains two single-period
buildings: a main building (A) and a secondary building (B)
to the east.  The entrance to building A was from the east,
by way of a small outer courtyard surrounded by stone
benches.  The benches, floor, and walls were plastered with
a white, shiny lime plaster.  Some of the plaster fragments
were painted.  They depict a female figure seated on a
chair and floral motifs.  Stone benches along the walls and
white plaster (both decorated and undecorated)
characterized the entrance complex.  An opening led from
the outer courtyard northward to a white plastered entrance
room where fragments containing inscriptions in a
Phoenician script were found.
Discovered in the bench room were two large pithoi
jars decorated with inscriptions and drawings. Also found
were several large and small stone bowls (four of them with
names of donors).
 Found in the building’s other rooms were vessels such
as juglets, lamps, flasks, bowls, and jugs. There were also
pithoi and storage jars that had names, titles, and marking
letters incised on their upper parts. The walls of the
building were built of rough stones that were hewn from the
local chalky rock and their height was 1.2 m.
The other structure at the site, the eastern building
(B), is about 10 m east of the main building.  Its floor
and wall fragments were covered with the white plaster.
The entrance was from the west was marked by two pilasters
projecting from the wall.
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A large pottery assemblage dating to about 800 BCE
were discovered at the site.  Three regions that provided
parallels to these finds were: Judah; the southern coastal
area; and northern Israel and Phoenicia. A large amount of
textiles were recovered; about one hundred cloth fragments,
mostly linen, and seven of wool (Zeev 1993:1458-1464).
  The most important finds at Horvat Teman (Kuntillet
‘Ajrud) are the inscriptions and drawings. See Section
4.5.7.7 in this dissertation.
EZION-GEBER (Tell el-Kheleifeh)
Tell el-Kheleifeh is a low mound with Iron Age and
Persian period remains located about 500 m from the present
northern shoreline of the Gulf of Elath, about midway
between its eastern and western ends.  It was first
discovered by F. Frank in 1933.  N. Glueck carried out the
excavation in 1938-1940 on behalf of the Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C. It was at Ezion-Geber that
Solomon established his fleet of ships (1 King 9:26).
Glueck searched to find Iron Age I-II remains near the
modern city at Aqabah, nothing was found.  Tell el-
Kheleifeh is the only site on the north shore of the Gulf
of Aqabah, whose pottery (Iron Age I and II) corresponded
with the history of Ezion-Geber.
In the northwest corner of Tell el-Kheleifeh a large
mud brick building was uncovered.  It was 13.2 m square,
with the outside walls 1.2 m thick and the partition walls
about 1 meter thick. Originally, it had consisted of six
rooms, three small square rooms at the north end and three
rectangular rooms to the south, the latter being 7.4 meters
in length.  The mud bricks used in this structure each
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measured about 40 by 20 by 10 centimeters.  Part of the
southern outer wall of the building was still standing to a
height of 2.7 meters.
Each of the walls had two horizontal rows of holes
piercing the width of the walls.  The lower row was a meter
above the base of the walls and the upper row 70
centimeters higher.  These holes apparently held wooden
cross beams inserted into the walls for bonding or
anchoring purposes.  Examples of this type of construction
have been found at Sendschirli (Syria), Boghazkoy (Turkey),
and Samaria (1 Kings 6:36). The outer and inner faces of
its walls were plastered over with a thick coating of mud.
A sloping rampart of mud bricks was built against the
outer sides of this main building, but it cannot be known
if it dates from the first stage of the building.  This
well built structure with its glacis was enclosed by a
fortification wall with salients and recesses on its outer
face and casemate rooms against its inner face. Each side
of the enclosure wall was 45 meters in length and was
divided into three salients and two recesses each 9 meters
in length.  It was built of bricks somewhat larger (about
43.5 by 23.5 by 13 centimeters) than those of the
“storehouse granary” and its glacis.  The building, as well
as the casemate wall with its salients and recesses, has
been attributed to the time of Solomon.
In the middle offset of the south side of the wall was
a 2.5 meter-wide gateway, with the outer entrance
originally at the east end and the inner entrance at the
west end.  The gateway was in line with a massive later
gate.  Both gateways pointed toward the sea.  The enclosure
wall, including the salients, measures from 1.05 meters to
1.1 meters in width and with the addition of casemates they
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measured 3.95 meters to 4.1 meters.  Similar casemate walls
from Solomon’s time have been found at Hazor, Megiddo, and
Gezer.  The buildings of Period I may have been destroyed
in the invasion of Pharaoh Shishak in the last quarter of
the tenth century BCE.
At the beginning of period II, a new series of massive
fortification walls of mud brick were erected. The new
outer mud-brick fortification consisted of a large inner
wall and a smaller outer wall, each strengthened by a
glacis, with a dry moat between them.  The inner wall, with
its comparatively slight salients and recesses and further
strengthened by a strong glacis with corresponding offsets
and insets tied into it above its foundation levels, was
particularly massive.  It was originally some 8 m high,
about 2 meters wide at the top and 4 m wide at the base.
About 3 m beyond the base of its glacis was the thinner
outer wall, which seems to have mirrored the construction
features of the inner one.  The dry moat between the two
walls had a stamped-clay and mud-brick floor.  At the
corners of the inside wall were towers overlooking its
supporting glacis. The scheme of double-walled outer
defenses with a dry moat between the walls can be
paralleled at the Moabite site of Khirbet el Medeiyineh
overlooking the Wadi Themed and at other sites.
On the south side near the southeast corner of the
double wall fortification was a massive, four-chambered
gate, with three pairs of doorways and two opposite sets of
guardrooms between them.  It is very similar to the massive
gateway of Megiddo (stratum IV-A), which Y. Yadin has shown
was built long after the time of Solomon, perhaps by Ahab.
Period II may represent a reconstruction by
Jehoshaphat of Judah, who reigned about 870-846 BCE.  He
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was the king who made the abortive attempt to revive the
sea trade between Ezion-Geber and Arabia and Africa (1
Kings 22:48; 2 Chronicles 20:36, 37).  As a result of
economic decline, coupled with the growing political
weakness of Judah, the importance of Ezion-Geber seems to
have weakened. After the time of Jehoshaphat, it is no
longer mentioned in the Bible.
Ezion-Geber may have been destroyed again during the
successful rebellion of the Edomites against Jehoshaphat’s
son Jehoram (Joram) (2 Kings 8:20-22; 2 Chronicles 21:8-
10), shortly after the middle of the ninth century BCE.
Nearly seventy years had passed between the
destruction and abandonment of Ezion-Geber and the
rebuilding of a new city (period III) on its sand-covered
ruins.  In this new city, a seal signet ring with the
inscription “Belonging to Jotham” was found.  The reference
is probably to Jotham, King of Judah, who was the successor
of Uzziah.  Underneath the inscription is a horned ram and
in front of it an object that N. Avigad has identified as a
bellows or a metal bar.  In the city of period III, which
was apparently built by Uzziah, the guardrooms of the
gateway were blocked up and other changes were made in
various constructions of the city.
During the war of Ahaz and Rezin, King of Aram, and
Pekah, King of Israel (about 733 BCE), the city was again
destroyed, and the Edomites rebuilt it anew (period IV).
This city, in which several sub-periods are distinguished,
lasted from about the end of the eighth century to the end
of the sixth century. The freedom regained by Edom from
Ahaz was never again threatened by Judah, which was not
strong enough thereafter to dispute Edom’s control over the
‘Arabah and Elath.  Edom itself, however, despite periods
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of prosperity; apparently became progressively less able to
take full advantage of its independence.
There were a number of jar handles found from the
first phase of period IV (seventh century BCE)  that were
stamped with an Edomite inscription reading, “Belonging to
Qausanal, the Servant of the King,” an official of the King
of Edom.  Qausanal (namely Quas or Qos) is the name of a
well-known Edomite deity.  Also belonging to period IV were
the fragments of a large jar, which was probably used for
transporting incense and spices from Arabia.  On two of its
pieces were incised the first ancient South Arabic letters
in Minaean script discovered in a controlled excavation in
this area. Other objects found in the course of the
excavations show connections with Egypt.
The Babylonian conquest brought an end to Edomite rule
over the city of period IV.  It was destroyed before the
end of the sixth century BCE (Pratico 1993:867-870).
5.3.5 JUDEAN DESERT
EN–GEDI AND TEL GOREN (Tell el Jurn)
En-Gedi is an oasis on the western shore of the Dead
Sea.  It is the name of the perennial spring that flows
from a height of 200 meters above the Dead Sea.  The desert
area in the vicinity of the spring is called the
“wilderness of En-Gedi” (1 Samuel 24:1-2). The enclosed
camps at the top of the mountains appear as the “strong
holds of En-Gedi” (1 Samuel 23:29).  En-Gedi is included in
the list of the cities of Judah among those in the
wilderness (Barag 1993:399).
520
Jehoshaphat (872-848 BCE), Asa’s successor, instituted
a series of religious and legal reforms.  In addition,
garrison cities, forts, and store cities were constricted
and manned (2 Chron. 17), and internal administrative
districts and governorships were established.
Later in the reign of Jehoshaphat, the Moabites,
Ammonites, and inhabitants of Mount Seir invaded Judah from
the east (2 Chron. 20:1-30).  They evidently crossed the
Salt Sea via a ford that led from the Lisan (Arab.
“tongue”) area westward, setting up camp at Hazaaon Tamar
(En Gedi).  From there they proceeded up the Pass of Ziz,
evidently attempting to move up the road on the ridge just
north of the Nahal Arugot.  Jehoshaphat, after inquiring of
the Lord, went out to meet them in battle.  But before his
arrival, the invading forces fought among themselves and
slaughtered each other, so that the Judean army merely had
to collect the booty left behind.  Other biblical
references are Ezekiel 47:10 and Song of Songs 1:14.
In 1949, a small expedition headed by B. Mazar began a
series of surveys and excavations in the oasis of En-Gedi.
Trial soundings in Tel Goren (Tell el-Jurn), a narrow
hillock in the south-west of the plain near Nahal Arugot,
established that from the end of Iron Age onward this had
been one of the main centers of settlement in the oasis.  A
second survey was carried out under the direction of Y.
Aharoni, and a third under J. Naveh (1956-57).
  Archaeological excavations were carried out at En-
Gedi on behalf of the Hebrew University and the Israel
Exploration Society.   In the first two seasons (1961-
1962), the excavations were directed by B. Mazar, I.
521
Dunayevsky, and Trude Dothan, and in the following three
seasons (1964 -65) by B. Mazar and I. Dunayevsky.
A short distance from En-Gedi was a settlement that
expanded and spread over extensive areas in the plain
between Nahal David and Nahal Arugot. This became known as
Tel Goren.  It is the most prominent site in the oasis area
of En-Gedi.  Five occupation levels were found during five
seasons of excavation.  The strata were from stratum V, the
end of the Iron Age (about 630-582 BCE) to stratum I, Roman
Age.  No occupation was found from the main time period of
concern for this dissertation (before 721 BCE).
Stratum V, the late Iron Age settlement was built on
the top of the hill and on the terraces of its slopes
(Barag 1993:400).
JERICHO (Tell el-Sultan)
No trace of an Iron Age occupation has been found at
Jericho. In the seventh century BCE, there was an extensive
occupation of the ancient site.  Evidence of this does not
survive on the summit of the mound, but is found as a thick
deposit, with several successive building levels on the
slopes of the tell.  On the eastern slope, a massive
building from this seventh century BCE period was found,
with a tripartite plan common in the Iron Age II.  The
pottery suggests that this stage in the history of the site
lasted until the period of the Babylonian Exile.  A few jar
handles with the seal impression “Yehud”( the name of the
satrapy of Judea) were found. These belonged to the Persian
period (Foerster 1993:681).